Gender Norms and Entrepreneurial Persistence among Women Tourism Entrepreneurs in the North Indian Himalaya
Abstract
This study examines gender norms, entrepreneurial barriers and entrepreneurial persistence among women tourism entrepreneurs working as adventure guides in Ladakh, North India.
Using survey data collected from 346 respondents - women adventure guides, male guides, tourism managers and women tourists across Leh, Nubra, Zanskar and Kargil - the study employs descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, hierarchical regression and structural equation modelling to examine entrepreneurial participation, barriers, business sustainability and career continuity.
Women guide continue to face income inequality, harassment, limited organizational support and social barriers that constrain long-term persistence. Social support, family approval and income stability emerged as the strongest predictors of entrepreneurial persistence, while women-only tour formats independently improved perceived safety and professional confidence.
The study contributes quantitative evidence on entrepreneurial persistence in Himalayan adventure tourism and develops a framework linking gender norms, social support, economic viability and institutional barriers to long-term entrepreneurial continuity in remote mountain destinations, thereby connecting gender-inclusive workforce participation to wider debates on socially sustainable tourism.
References
Adams, V. (2014). Tigers of the snow and other virtual Sherpas: An ethnography of Himalayan encounters. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400851775
Adventure Travel Trade Association. (2022). Adventure tourism market study 2022: Gender and participation trends. ATTA Research Division. https://www.adventuretravel.biz/
Aggarwal, R. (2004). Beyond lines of control: Performance and politics on the disputed borders of Ladakh, India. Duke University Press.
Alarcón, D. M., & Cole, S. (2019). No sustainability for tourism without gender equality. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(7), 903–919. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1588283
Ali, A., Iqbal, Z., & Ali, I. (2025). Women in mountain tourism: Exploring the links between women tourism entrepreneurship and women empowerment in Hunza Valley. Tourism Recreation Research, 50(6), 1391–1407. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2024.2386869
Altinay, L., Toros, E., Vatankhah, S., & Seyfi, S. (2026). Women entrepreneurs as cultural custodians in tourism: A social feminism theory perspective. Tourism Management, 112, Article 105267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2025.105267
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
Baum, T. (2013). International perspectives on women and work in hotels, catering and tourism (ILO Working Paper No. 1/2013). International Labour Organization.
Bayanbayeva, A., Turarbekova, A., Nurmukhanbet, D., Balmagambetova, V., Kala, N., Sabitov, S., & Mytalyapova, A. (2023). Tourism and Gender: Safety for Women Travelers, Enhancing Gender Equality and Combating Violence Against Women. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 14(6), 2725 - 2734. https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v14.6(70).20
Bhatt, D. G., & Kalkhundiya, A. (2025). Role of self-help groups (SHGs) in the enhancement of women's empowerment: An empirical study with special reference to the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. Indian Cooperative Review, 78(1), 1–15.
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2000). Gender differences in pay. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(4), 75–99. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.14.4.75
Brandão, F., Breda, Z., & Costa, C. (2020). Is innovation in the hospitality industry gender-biased? A look at hotel managers' innovation practices. In Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship (pp. 146–154). Academic Conferences and Publishing International. https://doi.org/10.34190/EIE.20.220
Bullough, A., & Renko, M. (2013). Entrepreneurial resilience during challenging times. Business Horizons, 56(3), 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2013.01.001
Butcher, A. (2015). Ceremonial activities in development: The spiritual “problems” for Ladakh's secular encounter. Tibet Journal, 40(2), 195–218.
Cole, S. (Ed.). (2018). Gender equality and tourism: Beyond empowerment. CABI.
DeTienne, D. R., Shepherd, D. A., & De Castro, J. O. (2008). The fallacy of “only the strong survive”: The effects of extrinsic motivation on the persistence decisions for under-performing firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(5), 528–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2007.09.004
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101
Domínguez Vila, T., Rubio-Escuderos, L., & Alén González, E. (2025). Accessible tourism: Using technology to increase social equality for people with disabilities. Tourism Review, 80(9), 1614–1634. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-11-2023-0812
Folbre, N. (1994). Who pays for the kids? Gender and the structures of constraint. Routledge.
Frohlick, S. (2006). “Wanting the children and wanting K2”: The incommensurability of motherhood and mountaineering in late modernity. Gender, Place & Culture, 13(5), 477–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690600858820
Gimeno, J., Folta, T. B., Cooper, A. C., & Woo, C. Y. (1997). Survival of the fittest? Entrepreneurial human capital and the persistence of underperforming firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(4), 750–783. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393612
Goel, R. (2023). Gender gap in mobility outside home in urban India. Travel Behaviour and Society, 32, Article 100559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2023.01.004
Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Jr., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2011). Survey methodology (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
GSMA. (2020). The mobile gender gap report 2020. GSM Association.
Gurung, G. S., & Seeland, K. (2008). Ecotourism in Bhutan: Extending its benefits to rural communities. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), 489–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.02.004
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Hanson, S., & Pratt, G. (1995). Gender, work and space. Routledge.
Hargreaves, J. (2013). Heroines of sport: The politics of difference and identity. Routledge.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.
Husain, Z. (2010). Gender Disparity in Completing School Education in India over Regions. Journal of Research in Educational Sciences, 1(2), 75 - 94. https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jres/article/view/9314
Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women's empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3), 435–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125
Khoo, C., Yang, E. C. L., Tan, R. Y. Y., Alonso-Vazquez, M., Ricaurte-Quijano, C., Pécot, M., & Barahona-Canales, D. (2024). Opportunities and challenges of digital competencies for women tourism entrepreneurs in Latin America: A gendered perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 32(3), 519–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2189622
King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1997). Sex-role egalitarianism scale: Development, psychometric properties and recommendations for future research. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 71–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00101.x
Kinnaird, V., & Hall, D. (1996). Understanding tourism processes: A gender-aware framework. Tourism Management, 17(2), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(95)00112-3
Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (5th ed.). Guilford Press.
Klugman, J., Hanmer, L., Twigg, S., Hasan, T., McCleary-Sills, J., & Santamaria, J. (2014). Voice and agency: Empowering women and girls for shared prosperity. World Bank.
Kollmayer, M., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2018). Gender stereotypes in education: Development, consequences and interventions. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 361–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1193483
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5–6), 411–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0
Ladakh Tourism Department. (2023). Annual tourism statistical report 2022–23. Government of Ladakh.
Laurendeau, J., & Sharara, N. (2008). “Women could be every bit as good as guys”: Reproductive and resistant agency in two “action” sports. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 32(1), 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723507307819
Massey, D. (2013). Space, place and gender. John Wiley & Sons.
Movono, A., & Dahles, H. (2017). Female empowerment and tourism: A focus on businesses in a Fijian village. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22(6), 681–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2017.1308397
Namgail, T., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Mishra, C., & Bagchi, S. (2007). Pastoral nomads of the Indian Changthang: Production system, land use and socioeconomic changes. Human Ecology, 35(4), 497–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-006-9107-0
Nguyen, H. T. V., & Nguyen, V. T. P. (2025). The gendered landscape of tourism: Social stereotypes and job difficulties for female tour guides. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 8(7), 2633–2648. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2025-0093
Phadke, S. (2007). Dangerous liaisons: Women and men, risk and reputation in Mumbai. Economic and Political Weekly, 42(17), 1510–1518.
Rosado-Varela, Á. A., & Medina-Argueta, G. del S. (2025). Relaciones y roles laborales femeninos en empresas de turismo de aventura en Quintana Roo. Estudios Sociales: Revista de Investigación del Noroeste, 35(65), Article 1572. https://doi.org/10.24836/es.v35i65.1572
Santos, E. (2023). From neglect to progress: Assessing social sustainability and decent work in the tourism sector. Sustainability, 15(13), Article 10329. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310329
Stylianou, C., Liasidou, S., & Garanti, Z. (2025). Women entrepreneurs' role in tourism co-creation and policy: Examining the case of Cyprus. Tourism and Hospitality, 6(1), Article 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6010033
Sun, M., & Lu, J. (2025). Mobile phones and economic gender inequality: A panel study of 104 countries from 2014 to 2022. Telecommunications Policy, 49(10), Article 103073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2025.103073
Valentine, G. (1989). The geography of women's fear. Area, 21(4), 385–390.
Williams, J. (2001). Unbending gender: Why family and work conflict and what to do about it. Oxford University Press.
World Tourism Organization. (2019). Global report on women in tourism (2nd ed.). World Tourism Organization.
Adventure Travel Trade Association. (2022). Adventure tourism market study 2022: Gender and participation trends. ATTA Research Division. https://www.adventuretravel.biz/
Aggarwal, R. (2004). Beyond lines of control: Performance and politics on the disputed borders of Ladakh, India. Duke University Press.
Alarcón, D. M., & Cole, S. (2019). No sustainability for tourism without gender equality. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 27(7), 903–919. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2019.1588283
Ali, A., Iqbal, Z., & Ali, I. (2025). Women in mountain tourism: Exploring the links between women tourism entrepreneurship and women empowerment in Hunza Valley. Tourism Recreation Research, 50(6), 1391–1407. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2024.2386869
Altinay, L., Toros, E., Vatankhah, S., & Seyfi, S. (2026). Women entrepreneurs as cultural custodians in tourism: A social feminism theory perspective. Tourism Management, 112, Article 105267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2025.105267
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.411
Baum, T. (2013). International perspectives on women and work in hotels, catering and tourism (ILO Working Paper No. 1/2013). International Labour Organization.
Bayanbayeva, A., Turarbekova, A., Nurmukhanbet, D., Balmagambetova, V., Kala, N., Sabitov, S., & Mytalyapova, A. (2023). Tourism and Gender: Safety for Women Travelers, Enhancing Gender Equality and Combating Violence Against Women. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 14(6), 2725 - 2734. https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v14.6(70).20
Bhatt, D. G., & Kalkhundiya, A. (2025). Role of self-help groups (SHGs) in the enhancement of women's empowerment: An empirical study with special reference to the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. Indian Cooperative Review, 78(1), 1–15.
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2000). Gender differences in pay. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 14(4), 75–99. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.14.4.75
Brandão, F., Breda, Z., & Costa, C. (2020). Is innovation in the hospitality industry gender-biased? A look at hotel managers' innovation practices. In Proceedings of the 15th European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship (pp. 146–154). Academic Conferences and Publishing International. https://doi.org/10.34190/EIE.20.220
Bullough, A., & Renko, M. (2013). Entrepreneurial resilience during challenging times. Business Horizons, 56(3), 343–350. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bushor.2013.01.001
Butcher, A. (2015). Ceremonial activities in development: The spiritual “problems” for Ladakh's secular encounter. Tibet Journal, 40(2), 195–218.
Cole, S. (Ed.). (2018). Gender equality and tourism: Beyond empowerment. CABI.
DeTienne, D. R., Shepherd, D. A., & De Castro, J. O. (2008). The fallacy of “only the strong survive”: The effects of extrinsic motivation on the persistence decisions for under-performing firms. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(5), 528–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2007.09.004
DiMaggio, P. J., & Powell, W. W. (1983). The iron cage revisited: Institutional isomorphism and collective rationality in organizational fields. American Sociological Review, 48(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.2307/2095101
Domínguez Vila, T., Rubio-Escuderos, L., & Alén González, E. (2025). Accessible tourism: Using technology to increase social equality for people with disabilities. Tourism Review, 80(9), 1614–1634. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-11-2023-0812
Folbre, N. (1994). Who pays for the kids? Gender and the structures of constraint. Routledge.
Frohlick, S. (2006). “Wanting the children and wanting K2”: The incommensurability of motherhood and mountaineering in late modernity. Gender, Place & Culture, 13(5), 477–490. https://doi.org/10.1080/09663690600858820
Gimeno, J., Folta, T. B., Cooper, A. C., & Woo, C. Y. (1997). Survival of the fittest? Entrepreneurial human capital and the persistence of underperforming firms. Administrative Science Quarterly, 42(4), 750–783. https://doi.org/10.2307/2393612
Goel, R. (2023). Gender gap in mobility outside home in urban India. Travel Behaviour and Society, 32, Article 100559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tbs.2023.01.004
Groves, R. M., Fowler, F. J., Jr., Couper, M. P., Lepkowski, J. M., Singer, E., & Tourangeau, R. (2011). Survey methodology (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
GSMA. (2020). The mobile gender gap report 2020. GSM Association.
Gurung, G. S., & Seeland, K. (2008). Ecotourism in Bhutan: Extending its benefits to rural communities. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2), 489–508. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.02.004
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2019). Multivariate data analysis (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.
Hanson, S., & Pratt, G. (1995). Gender, work and space. Routledge.
Hargreaves, J. (2013). Heroines of sport: The politics of difference and identity. Routledge.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage.
Husain, Z. (2010). Gender Disparity in Completing School Education in India over Regions. Journal of Research in Educational Sciences, 1(2), 75 - 94. https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jres/article/view/9314
Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women's empowerment. Development and Change, 30(3), 435–464. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-7660.00125
Khoo, C., Yang, E. C. L., Tan, R. Y. Y., Alonso-Vazquez, M., Ricaurte-Quijano, C., Pécot, M., & Barahona-Canales, D. (2024). Opportunities and challenges of digital competencies for women tourism entrepreneurs in Latin America: A gendered perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 32(3), 519–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2023.2189622
King, L. A., & King, D. W. (1997). Sex-role egalitarianism scale: Development, psychometric properties and recommendations for future research. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(1), 71–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00101.x
Kinnaird, V., & Hall, D. (1996). Understanding tourism processes: A gender-aware framework. Tourism Management, 17(2), 95–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(95)00112-3
Kline, R. B. (2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (5th ed.). Guilford Press.
Klugman, J., Hanmer, L., Twigg, S., Hasan, T., McCleary-Sills, J., & Santamaria, J. (2014). Voice and agency: Empowering women and girls for shared prosperity. World Bank.
Kollmayer, M., Schober, B., & Spiel, C. (2018). Gender stereotypes in education: Development, consequences and interventions. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15(4), 361–377. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1193483
Krueger, N. F., Reilly, M. D., & Carsrud, A. L. (2000). Competing models of entrepreneurial intentions. Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5–6), 411–432. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0883-9026(98)00033-0
Ladakh Tourism Department. (2023). Annual tourism statistical report 2022–23. Government of Ladakh.
Laurendeau, J., & Sharara, N. (2008). “Women could be every bit as good as guys”: Reproductive and resistant agency in two “action” sports. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 32(1), 24–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0193723507307819
Massey, D. (2013). Space, place and gender. John Wiley & Sons.
Movono, A., & Dahles, H. (2017). Female empowerment and tourism: A focus on businesses in a Fijian village. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22(6), 681–692. https://doi.org/10.1080/10941665.2017.1308397
Namgail, T., Bhatnagar, Y. V., Mishra, C., & Bagchi, S. (2007). Pastoral nomads of the Indian Changthang: Production system, land use and socioeconomic changes. Human Ecology, 35(4), 497–504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-006-9107-0
Nguyen, H. T. V., & Nguyen, V. T. P. (2025). The gendered landscape of tourism: Social stereotypes and job difficulties for female tour guides. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights, 8(7), 2633–2648. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-01-2025-0093
Phadke, S. (2007). Dangerous liaisons: Women and men, risk and reputation in Mumbai. Economic and Political Weekly, 42(17), 1510–1518.
Rosado-Varela, Á. A., & Medina-Argueta, G. del S. (2025). Relaciones y roles laborales femeninos en empresas de turismo de aventura en Quintana Roo. Estudios Sociales: Revista de Investigación del Noroeste, 35(65), Article 1572. https://doi.org/10.24836/es.v35i65.1572
Santos, E. (2023). From neglect to progress: Assessing social sustainability and decent work in the tourism sector. Sustainability, 15(13), Article 10329. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151310329
Stylianou, C., Liasidou, S., & Garanti, Z. (2025). Women entrepreneurs' role in tourism co-creation and policy: Examining the case of Cyprus. Tourism and Hospitality, 6(1), Article 33. https://doi.org/10.3390/tourhosp6010033
Sun, M., & Lu, J. (2025). Mobile phones and economic gender inequality: A panel study of 104 countries from 2014 to 2022. Telecommunications Policy, 49(10), Article 103073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.telpol.2025.103073
Valentine, G. (1989). The geography of women's fear. Area, 21(4), 385–390.
Williams, J. (2001). Unbending gender: Why family and work conflict and what to do about it. Oxford University Press.
World Tourism Organization. (2019). Global report on women in tourism (2nd ed.). World Tourism Organization.
Published
2026-08-28
How to Cite
RAFEE, Mohd; DOLMA, Tsewang; KHENRAB, Stanzin.
Gender Norms and Entrepreneurial Persistence among Women Tourism Entrepreneurs in the North Indian Himalaya.
Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, [S.l.], v. 17, n. 3, p. 252 - 267, aug. 2026.
ISSN 2068-7729.
Available at: <https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jemt/article/view/9613>. Date accessed: 02 sep. 2026.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v17.3(83).03.
Section
Article
Copyright© 2025 The Author(s). Published by ASERS Publishing 2025. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of CC-BY 4.0 license.