Tourism and Inequality in the European Union: Exploring the Determinants of Tourism Spending through a Multivariate Approach
Abstract
This paper aims to identify and analyze economic, social, and demographic factors influencing tourism expenditures across 26 European Union member states, offering a multidimensional perspective on consumer behavior in tourism.
The study uses panel data from 2014 to 2023 obtained from Eurostat, covering all EU countries except Sweden. Variables analyzed include GDP per capita, Gini coefficient, education level, demographic structure, and life satisfaction. A correlation analysis for 2023 explores the relationships between tourism expenditure and selected socio-economic indicators.
The findings reveal significant differences in the level and composition of tourism expenditures between higher- and lower-income countries. In wealthier nations, expenditure is linked to income, social inequality, age, and life satisfaction. In less affluent countries, income, age structure, and education play a more prominent role.
This study combines traditional economic indicators with social and psychographic determinants, emphasizing the role of quality of life in shaping sustainable tourism behavior.
Further research is needed to explore causal relationships and regional patterns affecting tourism expenditure and access, supporting more targeted and effective policy interventions.
The findings support the design of inclusive tourism strategies that reflect varying development levels and cultural contexts, promoting regional cohesion and equitable access. Improving access for disadvantaged groups, such as older adults, low-income populations, and people with disabilities, is a key priority amid Europe’s aging society.
References
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[3] Bernini, C., and M. F. Cracolici. (2015). Demographic change, tourism expenditure and life cycle behaviour. Tourism Management, 47: 191–205. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.09.016
[4] Bramwell, B., J. Higham, B. Lane, and G. Miller. (2017). Twenty-five years of sustainable tourism and the Journal of Sustainable Tourism: Looking back and moving forward. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 25(1): 1–92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1251689
[5] Brida, J. G., and R. Scuderi. (2013). Determinants of tourist expenditure: A review of microeconometric models. Tourism Management Perspectives, 6: 28–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2012.10.006
[6] Brida, J. G., D. Matesanz Gómez, and V. Segarra. (2020). On the empirical relationship between tourism and economic growth. Tourism Management, 81: 104131. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104131
[7] Chen, T.-S., M.-S. Hwang, and Y.-J. Chang. (2021). The effect of wealth effect and population aging on tourism expenditure. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(14): 1852–1865. DOI: 10.1080/13683500.2021.1937959
[8] Cho, V. (2001). Tourism forecasting and its relationship with leading economic indicators. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 25(4): 399–420. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/109634800102500404
[9] Chulaphan, W., and J. F. Barahona. (2021). Determinants of tourist expenditure per capita in Thailand: Potential implications for sustainable tourism. Sustainability, 13(12): 6550. DOI: 10.3390/su13126550
[10] D’Urso, P., M. Disegna, and R. Massari. (2020). Satisfaction and tourism expenditure behaviour. Social Indicators Research, 149(3): 1081–1106. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-020-02272-4
[11] Durán-Román, J. L., P. J. Cárdenas-García, and J. I. Pulido-Fernández. (2021). Tourists' willingness to pay to improve sustainability and experience at destination. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 19: 100540. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2020.100540
[12] Engström, T., and G. Kipperberg. (2015). Decomposing the heterogeneous discretionary spending of international visitors to Fjord Norway. Tourism Management, 51: 83–89. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2015.05.020
[13] Friedman, M. (1957). Theory of the Consumption Function. Princeton: Princeton University Press. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691188485
[14] Gómez-Déniz, E., and J. V. Pérez-Rodríguez. (2019). Modelling Distribution of Aggregate Expenditure on Tourism. Economic Modelling, 78 (May): 293–308. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2018.09.027
[15] Hall, C. M., D. Scott, and S. Gössling. (2021). Pandemics, transformations and tourism: Be careful what you wish for. Tourism Geographies, 23(3): 501–512. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/14616688.2020.1759131
[16] Inchausti-Sintes, F. (2015). Tourism: Economic growth, employment and Dutch Disease. Annals of Tourism Research, 54: 172–189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2015.07.007
[17] Kaczmarska, A. (2014). Wybrane czynniki rozwoju turystyki. Studia Ekonomiczne, 176: 202–215.
[18] Marrocu, E., R. Paci, and A. Zara. (2015). Micro-economic determinants of tourist expenditure: A quantile regression approach. Tourism Management, 50: 13–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.01.006
[19] Martins, L. F., Y. Gan, and A. Ferreira-Lopes. (2017). Empirical analysis of the impact of macroeconomic factors on global tourism demand. Tourism Management, 61: 248–260. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2017.01.008
[20] Massidda, C., R. Piras, and N. Seetaram. (2022). Analysing the drivers of itemised tourism expenditure from the UK using survey data. Annals of Tourism Research Empirical Insights, 3(1). DOI:10.1016/j.annale.2022.100037
[21] Muça, E., E. Velo, and E. Mersini. (2022). Smart technology effecting tourism development in Albania. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 13(8): 2113–2121. DOI: 10.14505/jemt.v13.8(64).04
[22] Mudarra-Fernández, A. B., I. Carrillo-Hidalgo, and J. I. Pulido-Fernández. (2018). Factors influencing tourist expenditure according to typologies: A systematic review. Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 66(1): 18–34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2018.1495086
[23] Musriha, M., and D. Rapitasari. (2023). Rising customer loyalty with beneficial impact on service quality dimensions during the COVID-19 pandemic for tourism in Thailand. Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, 14(2): 392–397. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v14.2(66).09
[24] Thrane, C. (2002). Jazz festival visitors and their expenditures: Linking spending patterns to musical interest. Journal of Travel Research, 40(3): 281–286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287502040003006
[25] Zysk, Ewa, and Agnieszka Źróbek-Różańska. (2015). Definiowanie obszarów wiejskich w wybranych krajach UE. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum. Administratio Locorum, 14(4): 75–85.
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[30] Eurostat. (2025). Tourism statistics – participation in tourism. Statistics Explained. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Tourism_statistics_-_participation_in_tourism
[31] OECD. (2020). Tourism Trends and Policies. Paris: OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-tourism-trends-and-policies-2020_6b47b985-en.html
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[39] World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). World Tourism Barometer. Vol. 22, no. 3. Madrid: UN Tourism, September 2024. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18111/wtobarometereng
[40] World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). (2024). Economic Impact Research – European Union 2024. London: WTTC. https://wttc.org/research/economic-impact
Published
2025-08-29
How to Cite
GRZENKOWICZ, Alicja.
Tourism and Inequality in the European Union: Exploring the Determinants of Tourism Spending through a Multivariate Approach.
Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, [S.l.], v. 16, n. 3, p. 287 - 300, aug. 2025.
ISSN 2068-7729.
Available at: <https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jemt/article/view/9067>. Date accessed: 07 sep. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v16.3(79).09.
Section
Article
Copyright© 2025 The Author(s). Published by ASERS Publishing 2025. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of CC-BY 4.0 license.