The Impact of Revolutions and Terrorist Attacks on Tourism. Case Study: Egypt
Abstract
The essence of the research concerns the impact of armed conflicts and terrorist attacks on the arrivals of foreign tourists with Egypt selected as the testing ground. It was found that revolutions and terrorist attacks have a negative impact on the development of the tourism industry – following the social unrest that took place in Egypt in the years 1997, 2011 and 2015, the number of arrivals of foreign tourists decreased by: 13%, 33% and 42% respectively (depending on countries of the world the reduction of the flow of tourists was within the range of 21-78%). The decrease in the number of tourists which takes place after a terrorist attack is short-lived and usually does not last longer than a year, whereas the consequences of a revolution are noticeable for tourism for a period of 3 to 5 years. According to respondents, the most important consequence of social unrest (protests, demonstrations, terrorist attacks) for tourism is a drop in the number of arrivals of foreign tourists, reduction in the income generated by tourism, decline in employment in tourism and the general slowdown in the development of tourism.
References
[1] Adeloye, D., and Carr, N. 2019. “Terrorism and Tourism recovery cases. A study of Tunisia and Egypt.” In Positive Tourism in Africa, edited by Mucha Mkono. London: Routledge.
[2] Adeloye, D., Carr, N. and Insch, A. 2021. Domestic tourists’ types of exposure to terrorism and travel intentions. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(17): 2489-2500. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1844161
[3] Arana, J. E., and Leon, C.J. 2008. The impact of terrorism on tourism demand. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2): 299-315. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2007.08.003
[4] Aroca-Sanchez, P., and Gutierrez-Hernandez, O. 2020. Impacts of Terrorism on the Tourist Flows in the Mediterranean Region. Boletin Geografico, 42(1): 59-79. Available at: http://revele.uncoma.edu.ar/htdoc/revele/index.php/geografia/article/view/2705/59500
[5] Avraham, E. 2016. Destination marketing and image repair during tourism crisis: The case of Egypt. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 28: 41-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.04.004
[6] Azim, T.S. A. 2009. The Relationship between the Perception of Risk and the Decision-making Process of Travel of French Tourists: the case of Egypt. Tourismos, 5(2): 29-47. Available at: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/25313/1/MPRA_paper_25313.pdf
[7] Aziz, H. 1995. Understanding attacks on tourists in Egypt. Tourism Management, 16(2): 91-95. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(94)00016-4
[8] Bassil, C., Saleh, A. S. and Anwar, S. 2019. Terrorism and tourism demand: a case study of Lebanon, Turkey and Israel. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(1): 50-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1397609
[9] Bhaskara, G. I., et al. 2021. The future of tourism in light of increasing natural disasters. Journal of Tourism Futures, 7(2): 174-178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-10-2019-0107
[10] Birkland, T. A., Herabat, P., Little, R.G. and Wallace, W. A. 2006. The impact of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on tourism in Thailand. Earthquake Spectra, 22: S889-S900. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1193/1.2207471
[11] Buigut, S., and Amendah, D.D. 2016. Effect of terrorism on demand for tourism in Kenya. Tourism Economics, 22(5): 928-938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2015.0467
[12] Buigut, S., Kapar, B. and Braendle, U. 2021. Effect of regional terrorism events on Malaysian tourism demand. Tourism and Hospitality Research, article number: 14673584211021895. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/14673584211021895
[13] Cesti, V. and Monaci, M. G. 2021. The perception of terrorism risk in tourists. Psicologia Sociale, 16(1): 27-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1482/98844
[14] Cohen, E. 2009. Death in paradise: tourist fatalities in the tsunami disaster in Thailand. Current Issues in Tourism, 12(2): 183-199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500802531141
[15] Coles, T. 2021. Tourism, Brexit and the climate crisis: on intersecting crises and their effects. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(9): 1529-1546. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1858304
[16] Czyż, B. 1985. “Arab People's Republic.” In Geography of the World, 490-500. Warsaw: Wyd. Szkolne i Pedagogiczne (in Polish)
[17] Elhusseini, F. 2014. Post Arab Spring Thoughts: The Middle East between External and Internal Mechanisms (Political Economic & Social Forces). Hemispheres. Studies on Cultures and Societies 29(2): 5-28. http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-d6bb0ce0-99b0-45df-b884-990b9ef823b7
[18] Esmail, H.A. H. 2016. Impact of Terrorism and instability on the tourism industry in Egypt and Tunisia after Revolution. The Business and Management Review, 7(5): 469-475. Available at: https://cberuk.com/cdn/conference_proceedings/conference_52824.pdf
[19] Feichtinger, G., Hartl, R.F., Kort, P. M. and Novak, A.J. 2001. Terrorism control in the tourism industry. Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 108(2): 283-296. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026430116313
[20] Ferreira de Arruda, D. 2019. The Impact of the Arab Spring on Tourism. Memòria del Treball de Fin de Grau. Universitat de les Illes Balears, pp. 1-28. Available at: https://dspace.uib.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11201/149650/Ferreira_Arruda_Deniz.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[21] Fielding, D. and Shortland, A. 2011. How do tourists react to political violence? An empirical analysis of tourism in Egypt. Defence and Peace Economics, 22(2): 217-243. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2011.542340
[22] Harb, G., and Bassil, C. 2020. Terrorism and inbound tourism: Does immigration have a moderating effect? Tourism Economics 26(3): 500-518. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619843452
[23] Ibrahim, M. A. M.A. 2011. The Determinants of International Tourism Demand in Egypt: Panel Data Evidence. European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences 30: 50-58. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/8517594/The_Determinants_of_International_Tourism_Demand_for_Egypt
[24] Ivanov, S., Gavrilina, M., Webster, C. and Ralko, V. 2017. Impacts of political instability on the tourism industry in Ukraine. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism Leisure and Events, 9(1): 100-127. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2016.1209677
[25] Kapera, I. 2009. “Terrorism and Tourism in Arab Countries as Exemplified by Egypt.” In Security in Tourism. Selected Issues, edited by Stefan Sacha, 9-22. Kraków: Wyd. Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne sp. z o o. – Oficyna Wydawnicza AFM (in Polish)
[26] Karamelikli, H., Khan, A.A. and Karimi, M.S. 2020. Is terrorism a real threat to tourism development? Analysis of inbound and domestic tourist arrivals in Turkey. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(17): 2165-2181. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1681945
[27] Khalid, U., Okafor, L. E. and Aziz, N. 2020. Armed conflict, military expenditure and international tourism. Tourism Economics, 26(4): 555-577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619851404
[28] Kosta, R. A. 2012. Terrorism as a Threat to the Security of Western Civilization in the 21st century. Toruń: Wyd. Adam Marszałek (in Polish)
[29] Krajnak, T. 2021. The effects of terrorism on tourism demand: A systematic review. Tourism Economics, 27(8): 1736-1758. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816620938900
[30] Kurzeja, M. and Kotliński, W. 2018. Influence of Terrorist Activities on Tourist Sector in Selected European and African countries. Economy and Finance 9: 85-98. Available at: http://stsw.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/zeszyt_pracowniczy_9.pdf (in Polish)
[31] Lim, Z. Y. and Flaherty, G. 2020. Fiery eruptions: travel health risks of volcano tourism. Journal of Travel Medicine 27(6), article number: taaa019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa019
[32] Lutz, B.J., and Lutz, J.M. 2020. Terrorism and tourism in the Caribbean: a regional analysis. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism And Political Aggression, 12(1): 55-71. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2018.1518337
[33] Marciniak, M. and Dłużewska, A. 2015. The Impact of Arab Spring on Tourism in Egypt. Cultural Tourism, 9: 38-53 [in Polish]. Available at: http://turystykakulturowa.org/ojs/index.php/tk/article/view/632
[34] Michalczuk-Ouerghi, K., and Dłużewska, A. 2019. Islamic Terrorism and Tourism – an Attempt to Assess the Premises and Consequences. Geographical Journal, 90(1): 41-59. Available at: https://ptgeo.org.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/CG_2019_90_1.pdf (in Polish)
[35] Mohamed, T.Z. F., and Alseyoufi, T. S. 2018. Terrorism in the Middle East: Implications of Egyptian Travel and Tourism. International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 6(3): 86-106. Available at: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1175&context=ijrtp
[36] Morga, M. 2019. The impact of Terrorist Attacks on Tourism in the 21st Century. Typescript of a student thesis, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa (in Polish)
[37] Okafor, L.E., and Khalid, U. 2021. Regaining international tourism attractiveness after an armed conflict: the role of security spending. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(3): 385-402. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1734547
[38] Olech, A. 2019. Terrorist Attacks in the Russian Federation in the 21st Century. New Eastern Policy, 4(23): 109-127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15804/npw2019230 (in Polish)
[39] Paczyńska-Jędrycka, M., and Eider, J. 2017. Tourism in the Face of Terrorism. Internal Trade, 4(369): 196-205. Available at: http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-6a6faf82-f946-4978-bc95-05018f1424cc (in Polish)
[40] Paraskevas, A. and Arendell, B. 2007. A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in tourism destinations. Tourism Management, 28(6): 1560-1573. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2007.02.012
[41] Pastusiak, K. 2018. The society of Egypt after the unfulfilled revolution and looking hope for its fulfilment. Student Annals of Land Forces Academy, 2: 65-81 [in Polish]. Available at: http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-765f8f70-32a4-43c4-891c-cbd28fa7d548
[42] Perles-Ribes, J. F., Ramon-Rodriguez, A. B., Moreno-Izquierdo, L. and Torregrosa Marti, M. T. 2018. Winners and losers in the Arab uprising: a Mediterranean tourism perspective. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(16): 1810-1829. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1225697
[43] Polyzos, S., Papadopoulou, G. and Xesfingi, S. 2021. Examining the link between terrorism and tourism demand: the case of Egypt. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism Leisure and Events. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2021.1904965
[44] Puspitasari, S. 2017. Arab Spring: A Case Study of Egyptian Revolution 2011. Andalas Journal of International Studies, 6(2): 160-177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.6.2.159-176.2017
[45] Rossello, J., Becken, S. and Santana-Gallego, M. 2020. The effects of natural disasters on international tourism: A global analysis. Tourism Management 79, article number: 104080. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104080
[46] Seabra, C., Reis, P. and Abrantes, J.L. 2020. The influence of terrorism in tourism arrivals: A longitudinal approach in a Mediterranean country. Annals of Tourism Research, 80, article number: 102811. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102811
[47] Shahrabani, S., et al. 2020. The effects of socio-political context on tourism. Euromed Journal of Business, 15(1): 22-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/EMJB-08-2018-0050
[48] Sharpley, R. and Knight, M. 2009. Tourism and State in Cuba: From the Past to the Future. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3): 241-254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.685
[49] Sieczko, A. 2017. Influence of terrorism on choosing tourist destinations. Journal of Tourism and Regional Development, 7: 91-98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22630/TIRR.2017.7.9 (in Polish)
[50] Sokołowski, J. 2017. The impact of Terrorist Attacks on the Demand for and Supply of Tourist Services. Research Papers of the University of Economics in Wrocław, 487: 283-292. DOI:https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2017.487.25 (in Polish)
[51] Szpara, K. and Gwóźdź, M. 2012. Modern Forms of Terrorism as a Threat to the Global Tourism. Research Papers of the University of Szczecin. Economic Problems of Services, 83: 99-112. Available at: http://www.wzieu.pl/zn/698/ZN_698.pdf (in Polish)
[52] Sztor, M. and Jęczmyk, A. 2019. Terrorist Attacks and the Selection of Tourist Trips destinations. Intercathedra, 41(4): 369-375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17306/J.INTERCATHEDRA.2019.00088 (in Polish)
[53] Tanaś, S. 2013. The meaning of genocide and terror in cognitive tourism. Tourism, 23(1): 7-15. DOI:https://doi.org/10.2478/tour-2013-0001
[54] Turkcan, K. and Erkus-Ozturk, H.2020. The impact of economic and political crises on the survival of tourism-related firms: Evidence from Antalya. Tourism Economics, 26(7): 1152-1174. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619868614
[55] Walters, G., Wallin, A. and Hartley, N. 2019. The Threat of Terrorism and Tourist Choice Behavior. Journal of Travel Research, 58(3): 370-382. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518755503
[56] Wheatley, J., and McCauley, C. 2008. Losing your audience: Desistance from terrorism in Egypt after Luxor. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 1(3): 250-268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17467580902853051
[57] Wu, L.-L., and Shimizu, T. 2020. Analyzing dynamic change of tourism destination image under the occurrence of a natural disaster: evidence from Japan. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16): 2042-2058. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1747993
[58] Wynne-Hughes, E. 2012. „Who would go to Egypt?” how tourism accounts for “terrorism”. Review of International Studies, 38(3): 615-640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210511000805
[59] Zasieczna, B. and Zasieczny, A. (ed.) 2004. Encyclopedia of Terrorism. Warsaw: Bellona and Muza (in Polish)
[60] Zhang, M. et al. 2021. Impact of earthquakes on natural area-driven tourism: Case study of China’s Jiuzhaigou National Scenic Spot. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 58, article number: 102216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102216
[61] Ziółkowska-Weiss, K. 2016. Consumers’ Behaviour of Poles Using Polish-Egyptian Travel Agencies in Sharm el-Sheikh. Studies of the Industrial Geography Commission of the Polish Geographical Society, 30(4): 102-118. Available at: https://prace-kgp.up.krakow.pl/article/view/3328/2948 (in Polish)
[62] Egypt. https://www.gov.pl/web/egipt/ie (in Polish)
[63] Egypt sees growth in visitor numbers and tourism revenue. Available at: https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/road-recovery-improving-visitor-numbers-and-sector-revenues-lead-renewed-optimism
[64] Egypt. Economic indicators. Available at: https://data.un.org/en/iso/eg.html
[65] Egypt. Security. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/dyplomacja/egipt (in Polish)
[66] Egypt: Bomb Blasts, Minor Emergency Appeal, Update no. 1. Available at: https://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/05/05ME04401.pdf
[67] Egypt: Dahab Bomb Explosions, DREF operation final report. Available at: https://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/06/MDREG003final.pdf
[68] GDP (current US$) – Egypt, Arab Rep. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=EG
[69] Reports: Cairo bombing not from known groups. Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/02/23/egypt.blast/
[70] We need to talk about Egypt: how brutal ‘counter-terrorism’ is failing Egypt and its allies. Available at: https://www.saferworld.org.uk/long-reads/we-need-to-talk-about-egypt-how-brutal-acounter-terrorisma-is-failing-egypt-and-its-allies
[71] www.e-unwto.org
[2] Adeloye, D., Carr, N. and Insch, A. 2021. Domestic tourists’ types of exposure to terrorism and travel intentions. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(17): 2489-2500. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1844161
[3] Arana, J. E., and Leon, C.J. 2008. The impact of terrorism on tourism demand. Annals of Tourism Research, 35(2): 299-315. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2007.08.003
[4] Aroca-Sanchez, P., and Gutierrez-Hernandez, O. 2020. Impacts of Terrorism on the Tourist Flows in the Mediterranean Region. Boletin Geografico, 42(1): 59-79. Available at: http://revele.uncoma.edu.ar/htdoc/revele/index.php/geografia/article/view/2705/59500
[5] Avraham, E. 2016. Destination marketing and image repair during tourism crisis: The case of Egypt. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 28: 41-48. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2016.04.004
[6] Azim, T.S. A. 2009. The Relationship between the Perception of Risk and the Decision-making Process of Travel of French Tourists: the case of Egypt. Tourismos, 5(2): 29-47. Available at: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/25313/1/MPRA_paper_25313.pdf
[7] Aziz, H. 1995. Understanding attacks on tourists in Egypt. Tourism Management, 16(2): 91-95. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-5177(94)00016-4
[8] Bassil, C., Saleh, A. S. and Anwar, S. 2019. Terrorism and tourism demand: a case study of Lebanon, Turkey and Israel. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(1): 50-70. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2017.1397609
[9] Bhaskara, G. I., et al. 2021. The future of tourism in light of increasing natural disasters. Journal of Tourism Futures, 7(2): 174-178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JTF-10-2019-0107
[10] Birkland, T. A., Herabat, P., Little, R.G. and Wallace, W. A. 2006. The impact of the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami on tourism in Thailand. Earthquake Spectra, 22: S889-S900. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1193/1.2207471
[11] Buigut, S., and Amendah, D.D. 2016. Effect of terrorism on demand for tourism in Kenya. Tourism Economics, 22(5): 928-938. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2015.0467
[12] Buigut, S., Kapar, B. and Braendle, U. 2021. Effect of regional terrorism events on Malaysian tourism demand. Tourism and Hospitality Research, article number: 14673584211021895. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/14673584211021895
[13] Cesti, V. and Monaci, M. G. 2021. The perception of terrorism risk in tourists. Psicologia Sociale, 16(1): 27-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1482/98844
[14] Cohen, E. 2009. Death in paradise: tourist fatalities in the tsunami disaster in Thailand. Current Issues in Tourism, 12(2): 183-199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500802531141
[15] Coles, T. 2021. Tourism, Brexit and the climate crisis: on intersecting crises and their effects. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(9): 1529-1546. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2020.1858304
[16] Czyż, B. 1985. “Arab People's Republic.” In Geography of the World, 490-500. Warsaw: Wyd. Szkolne i Pedagogiczne (in Polish)
[17] Elhusseini, F. 2014. Post Arab Spring Thoughts: The Middle East between External and Internal Mechanisms (Political Economic & Social Forces). Hemispheres. Studies on Cultures and Societies 29(2): 5-28. http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-d6bb0ce0-99b0-45df-b884-990b9ef823b7
[18] Esmail, H.A. H. 2016. Impact of Terrorism and instability on the tourism industry in Egypt and Tunisia after Revolution. The Business and Management Review, 7(5): 469-475. Available at: https://cberuk.com/cdn/conference_proceedings/conference_52824.pdf
[19] Feichtinger, G., Hartl, R.F., Kort, P. M. and Novak, A.J. 2001. Terrorism control in the tourism industry. Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 108(2): 283-296. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026430116313
[20] Ferreira de Arruda, D. 2019. The Impact of the Arab Spring on Tourism. Memòria del Treball de Fin de Grau. Universitat de les Illes Balears, pp. 1-28. Available at: https://dspace.uib.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11201/149650/Ferreira_Arruda_Deniz.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
[21] Fielding, D. and Shortland, A. 2011. How do tourists react to political violence? An empirical analysis of tourism in Egypt. Defence and Peace Economics, 22(2): 217-243. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/10242694.2011.542340
[22] Harb, G., and Bassil, C. 2020. Terrorism and inbound tourism: Does immigration have a moderating effect? Tourism Economics 26(3): 500-518. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619843452
[23] Ibrahim, M. A. M.A. 2011. The Determinants of International Tourism Demand in Egypt: Panel Data Evidence. European Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences 30: 50-58. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/8517594/The_Determinants_of_International_Tourism_Demand_for_Egypt
[24] Ivanov, S., Gavrilina, M., Webster, C. and Ralko, V. 2017. Impacts of political instability on the tourism industry in Ukraine. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism Leisure and Events, 9(1): 100-127. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2016.1209677
[25] Kapera, I. 2009. “Terrorism and Tourism in Arab Countries as Exemplified by Egypt.” In Security in Tourism. Selected Issues, edited by Stefan Sacha, 9-22. Kraków: Wyd. Krakowskie Towarzystwo Edukacyjne sp. z o o. – Oficyna Wydawnicza AFM (in Polish)
[26] Karamelikli, H., Khan, A.A. and Karimi, M.S. 2020. Is terrorism a real threat to tourism development? Analysis of inbound and domestic tourist arrivals in Turkey. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(17): 2165-2181. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1681945
[27] Khalid, U., Okafor, L. E. and Aziz, N. 2020. Armed conflict, military expenditure and international tourism. Tourism Economics, 26(4): 555-577. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619851404
[28] Kosta, R. A. 2012. Terrorism as a Threat to the Security of Western Civilization in the 21st century. Toruń: Wyd. Adam Marszałek (in Polish)
[29] Krajnak, T. 2021. The effects of terrorism on tourism demand: A systematic review. Tourism Economics, 27(8): 1736-1758. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816620938900
[30] Kurzeja, M. and Kotliński, W. 2018. Influence of Terrorist Activities on Tourist Sector in Selected European and African countries. Economy and Finance 9: 85-98. Available at: http://stsw.edu.pl/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/zeszyt_pracowniczy_9.pdf (in Polish)
[31] Lim, Z. Y. and Flaherty, G. 2020. Fiery eruptions: travel health risks of volcano tourism. Journal of Travel Medicine 27(6), article number: taaa019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taaa019
[32] Lutz, B.J., and Lutz, J.M. 2020. Terrorism and tourism in the Caribbean: a regional analysis. Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism And Political Aggression, 12(1): 55-71. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2018.1518337
[33] Marciniak, M. and Dłużewska, A. 2015. The Impact of Arab Spring on Tourism in Egypt. Cultural Tourism, 9: 38-53 [in Polish]. Available at: http://turystykakulturowa.org/ojs/index.php/tk/article/view/632
[34] Michalczuk-Ouerghi, K., and Dłużewska, A. 2019. Islamic Terrorism and Tourism – an Attempt to Assess the Premises and Consequences. Geographical Journal, 90(1): 41-59. Available at: https://ptgeo.org.pl/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/CG_2019_90_1.pdf (in Polish)
[35] Mohamed, T.Z. F., and Alseyoufi, T. S. 2018. Terrorism in the Middle East: Implications of Egyptian Travel and Tourism. International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage, 6(3): 86-106. Available at: https://arrow.tudublin.ie/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1175&context=ijrtp
[36] Morga, M. 2019. The impact of Terrorist Attacks on Tourism in the 21st Century. Typescript of a student thesis, Jan Dlugosz University in Czestochowa (in Polish)
[37] Okafor, L.E., and Khalid, U. 2021. Regaining international tourism attractiveness after an armed conflict: the role of security spending. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(3): 385-402. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1734547
[38] Olech, A. 2019. Terrorist Attacks in the Russian Federation in the 21st Century. New Eastern Policy, 4(23): 109-127. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15804/npw2019230 (in Polish)
[39] Paczyńska-Jędrycka, M., and Eider, J. 2017. Tourism in the Face of Terrorism. Internal Trade, 4(369): 196-205. Available at: http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-6a6faf82-f946-4978-bc95-05018f1424cc (in Polish)
[40] Paraskevas, A. and Arendell, B. 2007. A strategic framework for terrorism prevention and mitigation in tourism destinations. Tourism Management, 28(6): 1560-1573. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2007.02.012
[41] Pastusiak, K. 2018. The society of Egypt after the unfulfilled revolution and looking hope for its fulfilment. Student Annals of Land Forces Academy, 2: 65-81 [in Polish]. Available at: http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-765f8f70-32a4-43c4-891c-cbd28fa7d548
[42] Perles-Ribes, J. F., Ramon-Rodriguez, A. B., Moreno-Izquierdo, L. and Torregrosa Marti, M. T. 2018. Winners and losers in the Arab uprising: a Mediterranean tourism perspective. Current Issues in Tourism, 21(16): 1810-1829. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1225697
[43] Polyzos, S., Papadopoulou, G. and Xesfingi, S. 2021. Examining the link between terrorism and tourism demand: the case of Egypt. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism Leisure and Events. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2021.1904965
[44] Puspitasari, S. 2017. Arab Spring: A Case Study of Egyptian Revolution 2011. Andalas Journal of International Studies, 6(2): 160-177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25077/ajis.6.2.159-176.2017
[45] Rossello, J., Becken, S. and Santana-Gallego, M. 2020. The effects of natural disasters on international tourism: A global analysis. Tourism Management 79, article number: 104080. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104080
[46] Seabra, C., Reis, P. and Abrantes, J.L. 2020. The influence of terrorism in tourism arrivals: A longitudinal approach in a Mediterranean country. Annals of Tourism Research, 80, article number: 102811. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.102811
[47] Shahrabani, S., et al. 2020. The effects of socio-political context on tourism. Euromed Journal of Business, 15(1): 22-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/EMJB-08-2018-0050
[48] Sharpley, R. and Knight, M. 2009. Tourism and State in Cuba: From the Past to the Future. International Journal of Tourism Research, 11(3): 241-254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.685
[49] Sieczko, A. 2017. Influence of terrorism on choosing tourist destinations. Journal of Tourism and Regional Development, 7: 91-98. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22630/TIRR.2017.7.9 (in Polish)
[50] Sokołowski, J. 2017. The impact of Terrorist Attacks on the Demand for and Supply of Tourist Services. Research Papers of the University of Economics in Wrocław, 487: 283-292. DOI:https://doi.org/10.15611/pn.2017.487.25 (in Polish)
[51] Szpara, K. and Gwóźdź, M. 2012. Modern Forms of Terrorism as a Threat to the Global Tourism. Research Papers of the University of Szczecin. Economic Problems of Services, 83: 99-112. Available at: http://www.wzieu.pl/zn/698/ZN_698.pdf (in Polish)
[52] Sztor, M. and Jęczmyk, A. 2019. Terrorist Attacks and the Selection of Tourist Trips destinations. Intercathedra, 41(4): 369-375. DOI: https://doi.org/10.17306/J.INTERCATHEDRA.2019.00088 (in Polish)
[53] Tanaś, S. 2013. The meaning of genocide and terror in cognitive tourism. Tourism, 23(1): 7-15. DOI:https://doi.org/10.2478/tour-2013-0001
[54] Turkcan, K. and Erkus-Ozturk, H.2020. The impact of economic and political crises on the survival of tourism-related firms: Evidence from Antalya. Tourism Economics, 26(7): 1152-1174. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816619868614
[55] Walters, G., Wallin, A. and Hartley, N. 2019. The Threat of Terrorism and Tourist Choice Behavior. Journal of Travel Research, 58(3): 370-382. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287518755503
[56] Wheatley, J., and McCauley, C. 2008. Losing your audience: Desistance from terrorism in Egypt after Luxor. Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict, 1(3): 250-268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17467580902853051
[57] Wu, L.-L., and Shimizu, T. 2020. Analyzing dynamic change of tourism destination image under the occurrence of a natural disaster: evidence from Japan. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(16): 2042-2058. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1747993
[58] Wynne-Hughes, E. 2012. „Who would go to Egypt?” how tourism accounts for “terrorism”. Review of International Studies, 38(3): 615-640. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210511000805
[59] Zasieczna, B. and Zasieczny, A. (ed.) 2004. Encyclopedia of Terrorism. Warsaw: Bellona and Muza (in Polish)
[60] Zhang, M. et al. 2021. Impact of earthquakes on natural area-driven tourism: Case study of China’s Jiuzhaigou National Scenic Spot. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 58, article number: 102216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2021.102216
[61] Ziółkowska-Weiss, K. 2016. Consumers’ Behaviour of Poles Using Polish-Egyptian Travel Agencies in Sharm el-Sheikh. Studies of the Industrial Geography Commission of the Polish Geographical Society, 30(4): 102-118. Available at: https://prace-kgp.up.krakow.pl/article/view/3328/2948 (in Polish)
[62] Egypt. https://www.gov.pl/web/egipt/ie (in Polish)
[63] Egypt sees growth in visitor numbers and tourism revenue. Available at: https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/overview/road-recovery-improving-visitor-numbers-and-sector-revenues-lead-renewed-optimism
[64] Egypt. Economic indicators. Available at: https://data.un.org/en/iso/eg.html
[65] Egypt. Security. Available at: https://www.gov.pl/web/dyplomacja/egipt (in Polish)
[66] Egypt: Bomb Blasts, Minor Emergency Appeal, Update no. 1. Available at: https://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/05/05ME04401.pdf
[67] Egypt: Dahab Bomb Explosions, DREF operation final report. Available at: https://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/06/MDREG003final.pdf
[68] GDP (current US$) – Egypt, Arab Rep. Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=EG
[69] Reports: Cairo bombing not from known groups. Available at: http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/meast/02/23/egypt.blast/
[70] We need to talk about Egypt: how brutal ‘counter-terrorism’ is failing Egypt and its allies. Available at: https://www.saferworld.org.uk/long-reads/we-need-to-talk-about-egypt-how-brutal-acounter-terrorisma-is-failing-egypt-and-its-allies
[71] www.e-unwto.org
Published
2022-03-31
How to Cite
BAKOTA, Daniel et al.
The Impact of Revolutions and Terrorist Attacks on Tourism. Case Study: Egypt.
Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, [S.l.], v. 13, n. 2, p. 354-366, mar. 2022.
ISSN 2068-7729.
Available at: <https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jemt/article/view/6890>. Date accessed: 18 apr. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14505/jemt.v13.2(58).06.
Section
Article
Copyright© 2023 The Author(s). Published by ASERS Publishing 2023. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of CC-BY 4.0 license.