Tourist Behavioral Intentions during the COVID-19 Pandemic. The Role of Reactance, Perceived Risk and Protection Motivation
Abstract
The pandemic caused a number of changes in tourism, which require proper adjustment measures. Hence, learning about the mechanisms that motivate people to go on tourist trips during the epidemiological threat and identification of factors hindering the tendency to travel is of vital importance for determining the directions of such measures. The purpose of the paper is to present the results of studies illustrating the impact of perception of risk related to the infection with SARS-CoV-2 virus, reactance caused by epidemiological restrictions and health protection motivation with respect to tourist trips during the pandemic, as well as determination of force of impact of factors moderating the relationships above, i.e. immunization against SARS-CoV-2 or recovery from COVID-19, gender, age or education. Given the fact that the issue of changes in human behavior in the context of the pandemic is nowadays a vital element of the scientific discourse, the paper also features numerous references to the most recent publications dealing with the impact of the pandemic on the behavioral intention, reactions of people to epidemiological restrictions or health protection behavior in the period of epidemiological threat. The constructed model of dependency between the behavioral intention to go on a tourist trip and the factors that were studied was verified with the use of results of an empirical survey carried out in June 2015 on a sample of 1,615 persons. The paper also presents several implementation postulates that may offer guidelines for persons running tourist businesses and offer inspiration for further actions.
References
[1] Ajzen, I. 1991. The Theory of Planned Behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50(2): 179–211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
[2] Akhtar, N., et al. 2020. COVID-19 Restrictions and Consumers’ Psychological Reactance toward Offline Shopping Freedom Restoration. The Service Industries Journal 40(13-14): 891-913. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1790535
[3] Amaro, S. and Duarte, P. 2015. An Integrative Model of Consumers’ Intentions to Purchase Travel On-line. Tourism Management, 46: 64-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.06.006
[4] An, M., Lee, C. and Noh, Y. 2010. Risk Factors at the Travel Destination: Their Impact on Air Travel Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention. Service Business, 4(2): 155-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11628-010-0094-2
[5] Armitage, C.J. and Conner, M. 2000. Social Cognition Models and Health Behavior: a Structured Review. Psychology and Health, 15: 173-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440008400299
[6] Artuğer, S. 2015. The Effect of Risk Perceptions on Tourists’ Revisit Intentions. European Journal of Business and Management, 7(2): 36–43.
[7] Bae, S.Y. and Chang, P.J. 2021. The Effect of Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) Risk Perception on Behavioural Intention towards 'Untact' Tourism in South Korea during the First Wave of the Pandemic (March 2020). Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 1017-1035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1798895
[8] Bambauer - Sachse, S. and Heinzle, P. 2018. Comparative Advertising for Goods Versus Services: Effects of Different Types of Product Attributes Through Consumer Reactance and Activation on Consumer Response. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 44(C): 82-90 DOI: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2018.05.007
[9] Banberg, S., Ajzen, I. and Schmidt, P. 2003. Choice of Travel Mode in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: The Roles of Past Behaviour, Habit, and Reasoned Action. Basic and Applied Science Psychology, 25(3): 175-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2503_01
[10] Bensley, L. S. and Wu, R. 1991. The Role of Psychological Reactance in Drinking Following Alcohol Prevention Messages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21(3): 1111-1124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00461.x
[11] Bertini, M. and Aydinli, A. 2020. Consumer Reactance to Promotional Favors. Journal of Retailing, 96(4): 578-589. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2020.03.002.
[12] Betsch, C., and Böhm, R. 2016. Detrimental Effects of Introducing Partial Compulsory Vaccination: Experimental Evidence. The European Journal of Public Health, 26(3): 378–381. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv154
[13] Bockarjova, M. and Steg, L. 2014. Can Protection Motivation Theory Predict Pro-environmental Behavior? Explaining the Adoption of Electric Vehicles in the Netherlands. Global Environmental Change, 28: 276-288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.06.010
[14] Bratić, M., et al. 2021. Should I Stay or Should I Go? Tourists’ COVID-19 Risk Perception and Vacation Behavior Shift. Sustainability, 13: 3573. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063573
[15] Brehm, J. W. 1966. A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York. Academic Press
[16] Brehm, S.S. and Brehm, J.W. 1981. Psychological Reactance A Theory of Freedom and Control. New York. Academic Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-10423-0
[17] Byrne, S. and Hart, P.S. 2009. The Boomerang effect A Synthesis of Findings and a Preliminary Theoretical Framework. Annals of the International Communication Association, 33(1): 3-37. DOI:10.1080/23808985.2009/11679083
[18] Campbell, M. C. and Goodstein, R. C. 2001. The Moderating Effect of Perceived Risk on Consumers’ Evaluations of Product Incongruity: Preference for the Norm. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3): 439-449. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/323731
[19] Cavicchiolo, E., et al. 2021. Adolescents at a Distance: The Importance of Socio-Cognitive Factors in Preventive Behaviour During the COVID-19 Pandemic. European Journal of Health Psychology. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000083
[20] Çetinsöz, B. C. and Ege, Z. 2013. Impacts of Perceived Risks on Tourists’ Revisit Intentions. Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 24(2): 173-187. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2012.743921
[21] Cevik, S. 2020. Dirty Money: Does the Risk of Infectious Disease Lower Demand for Cash? International Finance, 23(3): 460-471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/infi.12383
[22] Chen, Q., Feng, Y., Liu, L. and Tian, X. 2019. Understanding Consumers’ Reactance of On-line Personalized Advertising: A New Scheme of Rational Choice from a Perspective of Negative Effects. International Journal of Information Management, 44: 53-64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.09.001
[23] Cheng, S., Lam, T. and Hsu, C. H. C. 2006. Negative Word-of-Mouth Communication Intention: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(1): 95-116. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348005284269
[24] Chew, E. Y. T. and Jahari, S. A. 2014. Destination Image as a Mediator between Perceived Risks and Revisit Intention: A Case of Post-disaster Japan. Tourism Management, 40: 382-393. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.07.008
[25] Chica, M., Hernández, J.M. and Bulchand-Gidumal, J. 2021 A Collective Risk Dilemma for Tourism Restrictions Under the COVID-19 Context. Scientific Reports 11:5043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84604-z
[26] Christou, P., Simillidou, A. and Stylianou, M. C. 2020. Tourists' Perceptions Regarding the Use of Anthropomorphic Robots in Tourism and Hospitality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management ,32(11): 3665-3683. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/323731
[27] Chua, B.-L., Al-Ansi, A., Lee, M.J., and Heesup, H. 2021. Impact of Health Risk Perception on Avoidance of International Travel in the Wake of a Pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 985-1002. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1829570
[28] Cox, D. 1967. Risk Handling in Consumer Behavior—An Intensive Study of Two Cases. In D. Cox (Ed.), Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behaviour: 34-81. Boston: MA: Harvard University Press
[29] Cucchiarini, V., et al. 2021. Behavioral Changes after the COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology (March). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.617315
[30] Cui, F., et al. 2016. An Overview of Tourism Risk Perception. Natural Hazards, 82: 643-658. DOI:10.1007/s11069-016-2208-1
[31] da Silva Lopes, H., Remoaldo, P.C., Ribeiro, V. and Martín-Vide, J. 2021. Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Tourist Risk Perceptions—The Case Study of Porto. Sustainability, 13(11): 6399. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116399
[32] Dailey, L.C. and Ülkü, M.A. 2018. Retailers Beware: On Denied Product Returns and Consumer Behavior. Journal of Business Research, 86: 202-209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.01.064
[33] De Vries, E.L.E. and Zhang, S. 2020. The Effectiveness of Random Discounts for Migrating Customers to the Mobile Channel. Journal of Business Research, 110: 272-281 DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.01.041
[34] DeFranza, D., et al. 2020, August 10). Religion and Reactance to COVID-19 Mitigation Guidelines. American Psychologist. Advance on-line publication.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000717
[35] Díaz, R. and Cova, F. 2021. Reactance, Morality, and Disgust: the Relationship between Affective Dispositions and Compliance with Official Health Recommendations During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Cognition and Emotion (June). DOI: 10.1080 /02699931.2021/1941783
[36] Dillard, J.P. and Shen, L. 2005. On the Nature of Reactance and Its Role in Persuasive Health Communication. Communication Monographs, 72(2): 144-168. DOI: 10.1080/03637750500111815
[37] Ding, A., Legendre, T.S., Han, J. and Chang, H. 2021. Freedom Restriction and Non-Member Customers' Response to Loyalty Programs. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 94: 1-10. DOI:10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102809
[38] Doran, R., and Larsen, S. 2016. The Relative Importance of Social and Personal Norms in Explaining Intentions to Choose Eco-Friendly Travel Options. International Journal of Tourism Research, 18: 159-166. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2042
[39] Erdoğan, S., Yildirim, D.C. and Gedikli, A. 2020. Dynamics and Determinants of Inflation during the COVID-19 Pandemic Period in European Countries: A Spatial Panel Data Analysis. Duzce Medical Journal, 22: 61-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18678/dtfd.794107
[40] Falahuddin, A.F., Tergu, C.T., Brollo, R. and Nanda, R.O. 2020. Post COVID-19 Pandemic International Travel: Does Risk Perception and Stress-Level Affect Future Travel Intention? Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik 24(1): 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.56252
[41] Faulkner, B., and Vikulov, S. 2001. Katherine, Washed out One Day, Back on Track the Next: A Post-mortem of a Tourism Disaster. Tourism Management, 22(4): 331-344. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00069-8
[42] Foroudi, P., Tabaghdehi, S.A.H. and Marvi, R. 2021. The Gloom of the COVID-19 Shock in the Hospitality Industry: A Study of Consumer Risk Perception and Adaptive Belief in the Dark Cloud of a Pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 92: 102717. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102717
[43] Gadai, P. 2020. Behavioral Insights and COVID-19 Pandemic in India. Sociološki pregled / Sociological Review, LIV(3): 920-960. DOI: 10.5937/socpreg54-27205
[44] Gut, P. and Jarrell, S. 2007. Silver Lining on a Dark Cloud: The Impact of 9/11 on a Regional Tourist Destination. Journal of Travel Research, 46(2): 147-153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507299590
[45] Han H., et al. 2020. The Post-Coronavirus World in the International Tourism Industry: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to Safer Destination Choices in the Case of US Outbound Tourism. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18): 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186485
[46] Hanus, B. and Wu, Y.A. 2016. Impact of Users’ Security Awareness on Desktop Security Behavior: A Protection Motivation Theory Perspective. Information Systems Management, 33(1): 2-16. DOI:10.1080/10580530.2015/1117842
[47] Hasan, M. K., Ismail, A. R. and Islam, M. F. 2017. Tourist Risk Perceptions and Revisit Intention: A Critical Review of Literature. Cogent Business and Management, 4(1). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2017.1412874
[48] Horng, J.-H., Hu, M.-L.M, Teng, C.-C.C. and Lin, L. 2014. Energy Saving and Carbon Reduction Behaviors in Tourism – A Perception Study of Asian Visitors from a Protection Motivation Theory Perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(6): 721-735. DOI: 10.1080 /10941665.2013/797002
[49] Hsieh, Y., Chen, Y. and Wang, Y. 2021. Government and Social Trust vs. Hotel Response Efficacy: A Protection Motivation Perspective on Hotel Stay Intention during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 97: 102991. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102991
[50] Hu, H., et al. 2019. What Influences Tourists’ Intention to Participate in the Zero Litter Initiative in Mountainous Tourism Areas: A Case Study of Huangshan National Park, China. Science of the Total Environment, 657: 1127-1137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.114
[51] Huan, T. C., Beaman, J., and Shelby, L. 2004. No-escape Natural Disaster: Mitigating Impacts on Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2): 255-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2003.10.003
[52] Huang, J. H., and Min, J. C. H. 2002. Earthquake Devastation and Recovery in Tourism: The Taiwan Case. Tourism Management, 23(2): 145-154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(01)00051-6
[53] Huang, J. H., Chuang, S. T. and Lin, Y. R. 2008. Folk Religion and Tourist Intention Avoiding Tsunami-Affected Destinations. Annals of Tourism, 35(4): 1074-1078. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.06.007
[54] Irvine, W. and Anderson, A.R. 2006. The Effect of Disaster on Peripheral Tourism Places and the Disaffection of Prospective Visitors. In Y. Mansfeld & A. Pizam (Eds.), Tourism, Security & Safety: From Theory to Practice (pp. 169–186). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann
[55] Itani, O. S. and Hollebeek, L. D. 2021. Light at the End of the Tunnel: Visitors' Virtual Reality (Versus In-person) Attraction Site Tour-related Behavioral Intentions During and Post-COVID-19. Tourism Management, 84: 104290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104290
[56] Jenke, T., Oosthuizen, J. and Cattani, M. 2021. An Investigation of the Influence of Economic Cycles on Safety Performance in Western Australia. Safety Science, 138: 105230. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105230
[57] Joo, D., et al. 2021. Residents’ Perceived Risk, Emotional Solidarity, and Support for Tourism Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 19: 100553. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100553
[58] Kaplan, S., Manca, F., Nielsen, T. A. S., and Prato, C. G. 2015. Intentions to Use Bike-Sharing for Holiday Cycling: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Tourism Management, 47: 34-46. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.08.017
[59] Karl, M., Kock, F., Ritchie, B.W. and Gauss, J. 2021. Affective Forecasting and Travel Decision-making: An Investigation in Times of a Pandemic. Annals of Tourism Research, 87. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2021.103139
[60] Kavvouris, C., Chrysochou, P. and Thøgersen, J. 2020. “Be Careful What You Say”: The Role of Psychological Reactance on the Impact of Pro-environmental Normative Appeals. Journal of Business Research, 113: 257-265. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.10.018.
[61] Khazaee-Pool, M., Naghibi, S.A., Pashaei, T. and Kordasiabi, M.C. 2021. Use of Protection Motivation Theory to Assess Preventive Behaviors of COVID-19. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences (JMUMS), 31(195): 19-29. DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-23051/v1
[62] Kim, J., Yang, K., Min, J. and White, B. 2021. Hope, Fear, and Consumer Behavioral Change Amid COVID-19: Application of Protection Motivation Theory. International Journal of Consumers Studies. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12700
[63] Kim, Y.J. and Kang, S.W. 2021. Perceived Crowding and Risk Perception According to Leisure Activity Type during COVID-19 Using Spatial Proximity, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020457
[64] Klymanska, L., Klymanska, M. and Haletska, I. 2020. The Lens, Frames and Patterns of Ukrainians: How Perception of Threat and Risk Determines Behavior in the COVID-19 Situation. Journal of Education Culture and Society, 11(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs2020.2.444.460
[65] Kokkoris, M.D. 2020. Choice as a Meaning-Making Device for Maximizers: Evidence from Reactance to Restrictions of Choice Freedom during Lockdown. Frontiers in Psychology, 11: 571462. DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.571462
[66] Korzeb, Z. and Niedziółka, P. 2021. Determinants of Differentiation of Cost of Risk (CoR) among Polish Banks during COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Risk & Financial Management, 14(3): 1-12. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14030110
[67] Kozak, M., Crotts, J. C., and Law, R. 2007. The Impact of the Perception of Risk on International Travelers. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(4): 233-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.607
[68] La Foresta, D. and Dziadkiewicz, A. 2020. Health Planning and Crisis Management during the First Wave of the Pandemic: the Case of Italy and Poland - Comparative Study. Gdańsk. Research Institute for European Policy.
[69] Laato, S., Islam, A.K.M.N., Farooq, A. and Dhir, A. 2020. Unusual Purchasing Behavior during the Early Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Stimulus-Organism-Response Approach. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 57: 102224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102224
[70] Lam, T., and Hsu, C. H. C. 2006. Predicting Behavioral Intention of Choosing a Travel Destination. Tourism Management, 27(4): 589-599. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.003
[71] Law, R. 2006. The Perceived Impact of Risks on Travel Decisions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 8(4): 289-300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.576
[72] Li S.R. and Ito, N. 2021. “Nothing Can Stop Me!” Perceived Risk and Travel Intention Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Study of Wuhan and Sapporo. Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism: 490-503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65785-7_47
[73] Lim, W.M. 2021. Toward an Agency and Reactance Theory of Crowding: Insights from COVID-19 and the Tourism Industry. Journal of Consumer Behavior: 1–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1948
[74] Lu S. and Wei J. 2019. Public's Perceived Overcrowding Risk and Their Adoption of Precautionary Actions: A Study of Holiday Travel in China. Journal of Risk Research, 22(7): 844-864. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2017.1422784
[75] Ma, H. and Miller, C.H. 2021.The Effects of Agency Assignment and Reference Point on Responses to COVID-19 Messages. Health Communication, 36(1): 59-73. DOI: 10.1080 /10410236.2020/1848066
[76] Maddux, J.E. and Rogers, R.W. 1983. Protection Motivation and Self-Efficacy: A Revised Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(5): 469-479. DOI: 10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9
[77] Majeed, S. and Ramkissoon, H. 2020. Health, Wellness, and Place Attachment During and Post Health Pandemics. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573220
[78] Makhdoomi, U. M. and Baba, M. M. 2019. Destination Image and Travel Intention of Travelers to Jammu & Kashmir: The Mediating Effect of Risk Perception. Journal of Hospitality Application & Research, 14(1): 35-56.
[79] Malova, T.A. 2020. What Signal Paradoxes of Global Economy. Vestnik MGIMO-Universiteta, 13(3): 225-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2020-3-72-225-242
[80] Martin, D. S., Ramamonjiarivelo, Z. and Martin, W. S. 2011. MEDTOUR: A Scale for Measuring Medical Tourism Intentions. Tourism Review, 66: 45-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/16605371111127233
[81] Matiza, T. and Kruger, M. 2021. Ceding to Their Fears: a Taxonomic Analysis of the Heterogeneity in COVID-19 Associated Perceived Risk and Intended Travel Behavior. Tourism Recreation Research, 46(2): 158-174. DOI: 10.1080 /02508281.2021/1889793
[82] Md Yunus, M., Ang, W.S. and Hashim, H. 2021. Factors Affecting Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) Postgraduate Students’ Behavioral Intention for On-line Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability, 13: 3524. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063524
[83] Mehrolia, S., Alagarsamy, S. and Solaikutty, V. M. 2020. Customers Response to On-line Food Delivery Services During COVID‐19 Outbreak Using Binary Logistic Regression. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 45(3): 396-408. DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12630
[84] Menard, P., Bott, G.J. and Crossler, R.E. 2017. User Motivations in Protecting Information Security: Protection Motivation Theory versus Self-Determination Theory. Journal of Management Information Systems, 34(4): 1203-1230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2017.1394083
[85] Michie, J. 2020. The Covid-19 Crisis and the Future of the Economy and Economics. International Review of Applied Economics, 34(3): 301-303. DOI: 10.1080 /02692171.2020/1756040
[86] Milne, S., Sheeran, P. and Orbell, S. 2000. Prediction and Intervention in Health-Related Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of Protection Motivation Theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30: 106-143. DOI:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308.x
[87] Miron, A. M. and Brehm, J. W. 2006. Reactance Theory—40 Years Later. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37: 9-18. DOI:10.1024/0044-3514.37.1.9
[88] Mitchell, V. W. and Vassos, V. 1997. Perceived Risk and Risk Reductions in Holiday Purchase: a Cross-Cultural and Gender Analysis. Journal of Euromarketing, 6(3): 47-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J037v06n03
[89] Morakabati, Y. and Kapuściński, G. 2016. Personality, Risk Perception, Benefit Sought and Terrorism Effect. International Journal of Tourism Research, 18: 506-514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2068
[90] Mortada, E., Abdel-Azeem, A., Al Showair, A. and Zalat, M.M. 2021. Preventive Behaviors towards Covid-19 Pandemic among Healthcare Providers in Saudi Arabia Using the Protection Motivation Theory. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 14: 685-694. DOI: 10.2147/RMHP.S289837
[91] Muangmee, C., et al. 2021. Factors Determining the Behavioral Intention of Using Food Delivery Apps during COVID-19 Pandemics. Journal of Theoretical & Applied Electronic Commerce Research, 16(5): 1297-1310. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jtaer16050073
[92] Neuburger, L. and Egger, R. 2021. Travel Risk Perception and Travel Behavior during the COVID-19 Pandemic 2020: a Case Study of the DACH Region. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 1003-1016. DOI: 10.1080 /13683500.2020/1803807
[93] Nisar, Q. A., et al. 2021. Depletion of Psychological, Financial, and Social Resources in the Hospitality Sector during the Pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 93: 102794. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102794
[94] Pagliaro, S., et al. 2021. Trust Predicts COVID-19 Prescribed and Discretionary Behavioral Intentions in 23 Countries. PLoS ONE, 16(3): 1-16. DOI: 10.1371-journal.pone.0248334
[95] Park, T., Ju, I., Ohs, J.E. and Hinsley, A. 2021. Optimistic Bias and Preventive Behavioral Engagement in the Context of COVID-19. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 17(1): 1859-1866. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.06.004
[96] Perić, G., Dramićanin, S. and Conić, M. 2021. The Impact of Serbian Tourists' Risk Perception on Their Travel Intentions during the COVID-19 Pandemic. European Journal of Tourism Research, 27(1): 1-22.
[97] Quintal, V. A., Lee, J. A. and Soutar, G. N. 2010. Risk, Uncertainty and the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Tourism Example. Tourism Management, 31(6): 797-805. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.08.006
[98] Radic, A., et al. 2021. To Dine, or Not to Dine on a Cruise Ship in the Time of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Tripartite Approach towards an Understanding of Behavioral Intentions among Female Passengers. Sustainability, 13(5): 2516. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052516
[99] Rainear, A.M. and Christensen, J.L. 2017 Protection Motivation Theory as an Explanatory Framework for Pro-environmental Behavioral Intentions. Communication Research Reports, 34(3): 239-248. DOI:10.1080/08824096.2017/12864.
[100] Rains, S.A. 2013. The Nature of Psychological Reactance Revisited: a Meta-Analytic Review. Human Communication Research, 39(1): 47-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01443.x
[101] Rains, S.A. and Turner, M.M. 2007. Psychological Reactance and Persuasive Health Communication: A Test and Extension of the Intertwined Model. Human Communication Research, 33(2): 241-269. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00298.x
[102] Raman, A. and Thannimalai, R. 2021. Factors Impacting the Behavioral Intention to Use E- Learning at Higher Education Amid the Covid-19 Pandemic: UTAUT2 Model. Психологическая наука и образование, 26(3): 82-93. DOI: doi:10.17759/pse.2021260305
[103] Rasoolimanesh, S.M., Seyfi, S., Rastegar, R. and Hall, C.M. 2021. Destination Image during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Future Travel Behavior: The Moderating Role of Past Experience. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management (September), 21: 1000620. DOI: 10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100620
[104] Rather, R.A. 2021. Monitoring the Impacts of Tourism-Based Social Media, Risk Perception and Fear on Tourist’s Attitude and Revisiting Behavior in the Wake of COVID-19 Pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(23): 3275-3283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1884666
[105] Richard T.R., Park, J., Li, S. and Song, H. 2020. Social Costs of Tourism during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Annals of Tourism Research, 84 (September): 102994. DOI: 10.1016/j.annals.2020.102994
[106] Ringler, C., Sirianni, N.J., Gustafsson, A. and Peck, J. 2019. Look But Don’t Touch! The Impact of Active Interpersonal Haptic Blocking on Compensatory Touch and Purchase Behavior. Journal of Retailing, 95(4): 186 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2019.10.007
[107] Rittichainuwat, B. N. and Chakraborty, G. 2009. Perceived Travel Risks Regarding Terrorism and Disease: The Case of Thailand. Tourism Management, 30(3): 410-418. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.08.001
[108] Roehl, W. S. and Fesenmaier, D. R. 1992. Risk Perceptions and Pleasure Travel: an Exploratory Analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 2(4): 17-26.
[109] Rogers R.W. 1975. A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change1. The Journal of Psychology, 91(1): 93-114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
[110] Rogers, R. W. 1983. Cognitive and Psychological Processes in Fear Appeals and Attitude Change: A Revised Theory of Protection Motivation. Social Psychophysiology: A Sourcebook, [in] I. J. C. R. Petty (eds.), Social Psychophysiology, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 153–176.
[111] Rose, J.P. and Edmonds, K.A. 2021. Social Comparisons for Following Health Recommendations and Their Relation to Worry and Intentions during COVID-19. European Journal of Health Psychology, 28(4). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000080
[112] Sakai, H., Shimizu, M., Yoshimura, T. and Hato, E. 2021. Psychological Reactance to Mobility Restrictions Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Japanese Population Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12: 655022. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655022
[113] Salisu, A.A. and Vo, X.V. 2020. Predicting Stock Returns in the Presence of COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Health News. International Review of Financial Analysis, 71: 101546. DOI: 10.1016/j.irfa.2020.101546
[114] Samdin, Z., Intan, S., Abdullah, N.W., Khaw, A. and Subramaniam, T. 2021. Travel Risk in the Ecotourism Industry Amid COVID-19 Pandemic: Ecotourists’ Perceptions. Journal of Ecotourism. DOI:10.1080/14724049.2021.1938089
[115] Sánchez-Cañizares, S.M., Cabeza-Ramírez, L. J., Muñoz-Fernández, G. and Fuentes-García, F. J.2021. Impact of the Perceived Risk from Covid-19 on Intention to Travel. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 970-984. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1829571
[116] Seabra, C., Abrantes, J. L. and Kastenholz, E. 2014. The Influence of Terrorism Risk Perception on Purchase Involvement and Safety Concern of International Travelers. Journal of Marketing Management, 30 (9-10): 874-903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2014.934904
[117] Shapiro, S.L., Drayer, J. and Dwyer B. 2020. An Examination of Consumer Reactance to Daily Fantasy Sport and Sport Gambling Regulatory Restrictions. Sport Management Review, 23(5): 797-809. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2020.02.006
[118] Silva, M. F. G. 2020. Uma História Sobre Pandemia (Covid-19), Isolamento E Fundamentos Microeconômicos De Políticas Públicas. (Portuguese), A Story about Pandemic (Covid-19), Isolation, And Microeconomic Fundamentals of Public Policies. (English), Cadernos de Gestão Pública e Cidadania, 25(80): 1-11. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12660/cgpc.v25n80.81290
[119] Sonmez, S. F. and Graefe, A. R. 1998. Determining Future Travel Behavior from Past Travel Experience and Perceptions of Risk and Safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(2): 171-177.
[120] Sparks, B. 2007. Planning a Wine Tourism Vacation? Factors that Help to Predict Tourist Behavioral Intentions. Tourism Management, 28(5): 1180-1192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.11.003
[121] Sparks, B. and Pan, G.W. 2009. Chinese Outbound Tourists: Understanding Their Attitudes, Constraints and Use of Information Sources. Tourism Management, 30: 483-494. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2008.10.014
[122] Sprengholz, P. and Betsch, C. 2020. Herd Immunity Communication Counters Detrimental Effects of Selective Vaccination Mandates: Experimental Evidence. EClinicalMedicine, 22: 100353. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100352
[123] Sprengholz, P., Betsch, C., Böhm, R. 2021. Reactance Revisited: Consequences of Mandatory and Scarce Vaccination in the Case of COVID-19. Applied Psychology: Health Well – Being (May): 1-10. DOI:10.1111/aphw.12285
[124] Sumaedi, S., et al. 2021. Factors Influencing Intention to Follow the “Stay at Home” Policy during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Health Governance, 26(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHG-05-2020-0046
[125] Thorbecke, W. 2020. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the U.S. Economy: Evidence from the Stock Market. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(10): 233. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13100233
[126] Thorpe, A., et al. 2021. Exposure to Common Geographic COVID-19 Prevalence Maps and Public Knowledge, Risk Perceptions, and Behavioral Intentions. JAMA Network Open, 4(1): e2033538. DOI:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33538
[127] Trifiletti, E., Shamloo, S.E., Faccini M. and Zaka, A. 2021. Psychological Predictors of Protective Behaviors during the Covid-19 Pandemic: Theory of Planned Behavior and Risk Perception. Journal of Community Applied Social Psychology (March). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2509
[128] Tsai, H.S., et al. 2016. Understanding On-line Safety Behaviors: A Protection Motivation Theory Perspective. Computers & Security, 59: 138-150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2016.02.009
[129] Um, S. and Crompton, J. L. 1992. The Roles of Perceived Inhibitors and Facilitators in Pleasure Travel Destination Decisions. Journal of Travel Research, 30(3): 18-25. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759203000303
[130] Verkoeyen S. and Nepal S.K., 2019. Understanding Scuba Divers' Response to Coral Beaching: An Application of Protection Motivation Theory. Journal of Environmental Management, 231: 869-877. DOI:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.030
[131] Viswanath, K., et al. 2021. Individual and Social Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake. BMC Public Health, 21, 818. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10862-1
[132] Vlados, C. 2020. Development and Underdevelopment from the Perspective of Evolutionary Socioeconomics in the Post-COVID-19 Era. Journal of Economic and Social Thought, 7(4): 181-212. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1453/jest.v7i4.2150
[133] Wang, C., et al. 2019. The Impact of Behavioral Reference on Tourists' Responsible Environmental Behaviors. Science of The Total Environment, 694: 133698. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133698
[134] Wang, J., Liu-Lastres, B., Ritchie, B.W. and Mills, D.J. 2019. Travelers' Self-protections Against Health Risks: An Application of the Full Protection Motivation Theory. “Annals of Tourism Research”, 78: 102743. DOI:10.1016/j.annals.2019.102743
[135] Wang, W.C., Lin, C.-H., Lu, W.-B. and Lee, S.-H. 2019. When Destination Attractiveness Shifts in Response to Climate Change: Tourists' Adaptation Intention in Taiwan's Kenting National Park. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(5): 522-543. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1437715
[136] Wojciszke, B. 2020. Psychologia społeczna. Warsaw. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar [in Polish]
[137] Wong, J. Y. and Yeh, C. 2009. Tourist Hesitation in Destination Decision Making. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(1): 6-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.09.005
[138] Yamashita T., Yamashita K. and Kamimura R. 2007. A Stepwise AIC Method for Variable Selection in Linear Regression. Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods, 36(13): 2395-2403. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/03610920701215639
[139] Yang, C. L. and Nair, V. 2014. Risk Perception Study in Tourism: Are We Really Measuring Perceived Risk? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 144: 322-327. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.302
[140] Yao, X., Zhang, L., Du, J. and Gao, L. 2021. Effect of Information-Motivation-Behavioral Model Based on Protection Motivation Theory on the Psychological Resilience and Quality of Life of Patients with Type 2 DM. Psychiatric Quarterly, 92(1): 49-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-020-09783-w
[141] Yaprak, Ü., Kılıç, F. and Okumuş, A. 2021. Is the Covid-19 Pandemic Strong Enough to Change the On-line Order Delivery Methods? Changes in the Relationship between Attitude and Behavior towards Order Delivery by Drone. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 169: 120829. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120829
[142] Youn, S. and Kim, S. 2019. Understanding Ad Avoidance on Facebook: Antecedents and Outcomes of Psychological Reactance. Computers in Human Behaviorm 98: 232-244. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.025
[143] Zhang, K., Hou, Y. and Li, G. 2020. Threat of Infectious Disease during an Outbreak: Influence on Tourists' Emotional Responses to Disadvantaged Price Inequality. Annals of Tourism Research. DOI:10.1016/j.annals.2020.102993
[144] Zheng, D., Lou, Q. and Ritchie B.W. 2021. Afraid to Travel After COVID-19? Self-Protection, Coping and Resilience against Pandemic ‘Travel Fear’. Tourism Management, 83: 104261.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104261
[145] Zhu, H. and Deng, F.2020. How to Influence Rural Tourism Intention by Risk Knowledge during COVID-19 Containment in China: Mediating Role of Risk Perception and Attitude. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17: 3514. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17103514
[146] Zielinski, S and Botero, C.M. 2020. Beach Tourism in Times of COVID-19 Pandemic: Critical Issues. Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17: 7288. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197288.
[2] Akhtar, N., et al. 2020. COVID-19 Restrictions and Consumers’ Psychological Reactance toward Offline Shopping Freedom Restoration. The Service Industries Journal 40(13-14): 891-913. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/02642069.2020.1790535
[3] Amaro, S. and Duarte, P. 2015. An Integrative Model of Consumers’ Intentions to Purchase Travel On-line. Tourism Management, 46: 64-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.06.006
[4] An, M., Lee, C. and Noh, Y. 2010. Risk Factors at the Travel Destination: Their Impact on Air Travel Satisfaction and Repurchase Intention. Service Business, 4(2): 155-166. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11628-010-0094-2
[5] Armitage, C.J. and Conner, M. 2000. Social Cognition Models and Health Behavior: a Structured Review. Psychology and Health, 15: 173-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440008400299
[6] Artuğer, S. 2015. The Effect of Risk Perceptions on Tourists’ Revisit Intentions. European Journal of Business and Management, 7(2): 36–43.
[7] Bae, S.Y. and Chang, P.J. 2021. The Effect of Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) Risk Perception on Behavioural Intention towards 'Untact' Tourism in South Korea during the First Wave of the Pandemic (March 2020). Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 1017-1035. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1798895
[8] Bambauer - Sachse, S. and Heinzle, P. 2018. Comparative Advertising for Goods Versus Services: Effects of Different Types of Product Attributes Through Consumer Reactance and Activation on Consumer Response. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 44(C): 82-90 DOI: 10.1016/j.jretconser.2018.05.007
[9] Banberg, S., Ajzen, I. and Schmidt, P. 2003. Choice of Travel Mode in the Theory of Planned Behaviour: The Roles of Past Behaviour, Habit, and Reasoned Action. Basic and Applied Science Psychology, 25(3): 175-188. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/S15324834BASP2503_01
[10] Bensley, L. S. and Wu, R. 1991. The Role of Psychological Reactance in Drinking Following Alcohol Prevention Messages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 21(3): 1111-1124. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1991.tb00461.x
[11] Bertini, M. and Aydinli, A. 2020. Consumer Reactance to Promotional Favors. Journal of Retailing, 96(4): 578-589. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2020.03.002.
[12] Betsch, C., and Böhm, R. 2016. Detrimental Effects of Introducing Partial Compulsory Vaccination: Experimental Evidence. The European Journal of Public Health, 26(3): 378–381. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckv154
[13] Bockarjova, M. and Steg, L. 2014. Can Protection Motivation Theory Predict Pro-environmental Behavior? Explaining the Adoption of Electric Vehicles in the Netherlands. Global Environmental Change, 28: 276-288. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2014.06.010
[14] Bratić, M., et al. 2021. Should I Stay or Should I Go? Tourists’ COVID-19 Risk Perception and Vacation Behavior Shift. Sustainability, 13: 3573. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063573
[15] Brehm, J. W. 1966. A Theory of Psychological Reactance. New York. Academic Press
[16] Brehm, S.S. and Brehm, J.W. 1981. Psychological Reactance A Theory of Freedom and Control. New York. Academic Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-10423-0
[17] Byrne, S. and Hart, P.S. 2009. The Boomerang effect A Synthesis of Findings and a Preliminary Theoretical Framework. Annals of the International Communication Association, 33(1): 3-37. DOI:10.1080/23808985.2009/11679083
[18] Campbell, M. C. and Goodstein, R. C. 2001. The Moderating Effect of Perceived Risk on Consumers’ Evaluations of Product Incongruity: Preference for the Norm. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(3): 439-449. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/323731
[19] Cavicchiolo, E., et al. 2021. Adolescents at a Distance: The Importance of Socio-Cognitive Factors in Preventive Behaviour During the COVID-19 Pandemic. European Journal of Health Psychology. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000083
[20] Çetinsöz, B. C. and Ege, Z. 2013. Impacts of Perceived Risks on Tourists’ Revisit Intentions. Anatolia – An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 24(2): 173-187. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13032917.2012.743921
[21] Cevik, S. 2020. Dirty Money: Does the Risk of Infectious Disease Lower Demand for Cash? International Finance, 23(3): 460-471. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/infi.12383
[22] Chen, Q., Feng, Y., Liu, L. and Tian, X. 2019. Understanding Consumers’ Reactance of On-line Personalized Advertising: A New Scheme of Rational Choice from a Perspective of Negative Effects. International Journal of Information Management, 44: 53-64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.09.001
[23] Cheng, S., Lam, T. and Hsu, C. H. C. 2006. Negative Word-of-Mouth Communication Intention: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 30(1): 95-116. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348005284269
[24] Chew, E. Y. T. and Jahari, S. A. 2014. Destination Image as a Mediator between Perceived Risks and Revisit Intention: A Case of Post-disaster Japan. Tourism Management, 40: 382-393. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.07.008
[25] Chica, M., Hernández, J.M. and Bulchand-Gidumal, J. 2021 A Collective Risk Dilemma for Tourism Restrictions Under the COVID-19 Context. Scientific Reports 11:5043. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-84604-z
[26] Christou, P., Simillidou, A. and Stylianou, M. C. 2020. Tourists' Perceptions Regarding the Use of Anthropomorphic Robots in Tourism and Hospitality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management ,32(11): 3665-3683. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/323731
[27] Chua, B.-L., Al-Ansi, A., Lee, M.J., and Heesup, H. 2021. Impact of Health Risk Perception on Avoidance of International Travel in the Wake of a Pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 985-1002. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1829570
[28] Cox, D. 1967. Risk Handling in Consumer Behavior—An Intensive Study of Two Cases. In D. Cox (Ed.), Risk Taking and Information Handling in Consumer Behaviour: 34-81. Boston: MA: Harvard University Press
[29] Cucchiarini, V., et al. 2021. Behavioral Changes after the COVID-19 Lockdown in Italy. Frontiers in Psychology (March). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.617315
[30] Cui, F., et al. 2016. An Overview of Tourism Risk Perception. Natural Hazards, 82: 643-658. DOI:10.1007/s11069-016-2208-1
[31] da Silva Lopes, H., Remoaldo, P.C., Ribeiro, V. and Martín-Vide, J. 2021. Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Tourist Risk Perceptions—The Case Study of Porto. Sustainability, 13(11): 6399. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/su13116399
[32] Dailey, L.C. and Ülkü, M.A. 2018. Retailers Beware: On Denied Product Returns and Consumer Behavior. Journal of Business Research, 86: 202-209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.01.064
[33] De Vries, E.L.E. and Zhang, S. 2020. The Effectiveness of Random Discounts for Migrating Customers to the Mobile Channel. Journal of Business Research, 110: 272-281 DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.01.041
[34] DeFranza, D., et al. 2020, August 10). Religion and Reactance to COVID-19 Mitigation Guidelines. American Psychologist. Advance on-line publication.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/amp0000717
[35] Díaz, R. and Cova, F. 2021. Reactance, Morality, and Disgust: the Relationship between Affective Dispositions and Compliance with Official Health Recommendations During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Cognition and Emotion (June). DOI: 10.1080 /02699931.2021/1941783
[36] Dillard, J.P. and Shen, L. 2005. On the Nature of Reactance and Its Role in Persuasive Health Communication. Communication Monographs, 72(2): 144-168. DOI: 10.1080/03637750500111815
[37] Ding, A., Legendre, T.S., Han, J. and Chang, H. 2021. Freedom Restriction and Non-Member Customers' Response to Loyalty Programs. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 94: 1-10. DOI:10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102809
[38] Doran, R., and Larsen, S. 2016. The Relative Importance of Social and Personal Norms in Explaining Intentions to Choose Eco-Friendly Travel Options. International Journal of Tourism Research, 18: 159-166. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2042
[39] Erdoğan, S., Yildirim, D.C. and Gedikli, A. 2020. Dynamics and Determinants of Inflation during the COVID-19 Pandemic Period in European Countries: A Spatial Panel Data Analysis. Duzce Medical Journal, 22: 61-67. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18678/dtfd.794107
[40] Falahuddin, A.F., Tergu, C.T., Brollo, R. and Nanda, R.O. 2020. Post COVID-19 Pandemic International Travel: Does Risk Perception and Stress-Level Affect Future Travel Intention? Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik 24(1): 1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22146/jsp.56252
[41] Faulkner, B., and Vikulov, S. 2001. Katherine, Washed out One Day, Back on Track the Next: A Post-mortem of a Tourism Disaster. Tourism Management, 22(4): 331-344. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(00)00069-8
[42] Foroudi, P., Tabaghdehi, S.A.H. and Marvi, R. 2021. The Gloom of the COVID-19 Shock in the Hospitality Industry: A Study of Consumer Risk Perception and Adaptive Belief in the Dark Cloud of a Pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 92: 102717. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102717
[43] Gadai, P. 2020. Behavioral Insights and COVID-19 Pandemic in India. Sociološki pregled / Sociological Review, LIV(3): 920-960. DOI: 10.5937/socpreg54-27205
[44] Gut, P. and Jarrell, S. 2007. Silver Lining on a Dark Cloud: The Impact of 9/11 on a Regional Tourist Destination. Journal of Travel Research, 46(2): 147-153. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287507299590
[45] Han H., et al. 2020. The Post-Coronavirus World in the International Tourism Industry: Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior to Safer Destination Choices in the Case of US Outbound Tourism. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(18): 1-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186485
[46] Hanus, B. and Wu, Y.A. 2016. Impact of Users’ Security Awareness on Desktop Security Behavior: A Protection Motivation Theory Perspective. Information Systems Management, 33(1): 2-16. DOI:10.1080/10580530.2015/1117842
[47] Hasan, M. K., Ismail, A. R. and Islam, M. F. 2017. Tourist Risk Perceptions and Revisit Intention: A Critical Review of Literature. Cogent Business and Management, 4(1). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2017.1412874
[48] Horng, J.-H., Hu, M.-L.M, Teng, C.-C.C. and Lin, L. 2014. Energy Saving and Carbon Reduction Behaviors in Tourism – A Perception Study of Asian Visitors from a Protection Motivation Theory Perspective. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(6): 721-735. DOI: 10.1080 /10941665.2013/797002
[49] Hsieh, Y., Chen, Y. and Wang, Y. 2021. Government and Social Trust vs. Hotel Response Efficacy: A Protection Motivation Perspective on Hotel Stay Intention during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 97: 102991. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102991
[50] Hu, H., et al. 2019. What Influences Tourists’ Intention to Participate in the Zero Litter Initiative in Mountainous Tourism Areas: A Case Study of Huangshan National Park, China. Science of the Total Environment, 657: 1127-1137. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.12.114
[51] Huan, T. C., Beaman, J., and Shelby, L. 2004. No-escape Natural Disaster: Mitigating Impacts on Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(2): 255-273. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2003.10.003
[52] Huang, J. H., and Min, J. C. H. 2002. Earthquake Devastation and Recovery in Tourism: The Taiwan Case. Tourism Management, 23(2): 145-154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(01)00051-6
[53] Huang, J. H., Chuang, S. T. and Lin, Y. R. 2008. Folk Religion and Tourist Intention Avoiding Tsunami-Affected Destinations. Annals of Tourism, 35(4): 1074-1078. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.06.007
[54] Irvine, W. and Anderson, A.R. 2006. The Effect of Disaster on Peripheral Tourism Places and the Disaffection of Prospective Visitors. In Y. Mansfeld & A. Pizam (Eds.), Tourism, Security & Safety: From Theory to Practice (pp. 169–186). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann
[55] Itani, O. S. and Hollebeek, L. D. 2021. Light at the End of the Tunnel: Visitors' Virtual Reality (Versus In-person) Attraction Site Tour-related Behavioral Intentions During and Post-COVID-19. Tourism Management, 84: 104290. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104290
[56] Jenke, T., Oosthuizen, J. and Cattani, M. 2021. An Investigation of the Influence of Economic Cycles on Safety Performance in Western Australia. Safety Science, 138: 105230. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105230
[57] Joo, D., et al. 2021. Residents’ Perceived Risk, Emotional Solidarity, and Support for Tourism Amidst the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Destination Marketing and Management, 19: 100553. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100553
[58] Kaplan, S., Manca, F., Nielsen, T. A. S., and Prato, C. G. 2015. Intentions to Use Bike-Sharing for Holiday Cycling: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Tourism Management, 47: 34-46. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.08.017
[59] Karl, M., Kock, F., Ritchie, B.W. and Gauss, J. 2021. Affective Forecasting and Travel Decision-making: An Investigation in Times of a Pandemic. Annals of Tourism Research, 87. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2021.103139
[60] Kavvouris, C., Chrysochou, P. and Thøgersen, J. 2020. “Be Careful What You Say”: The Role of Psychological Reactance on the Impact of Pro-environmental Normative Appeals. Journal of Business Research, 113: 257-265. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.10.018.
[61] Khazaee-Pool, M., Naghibi, S.A., Pashaei, T. and Kordasiabi, M.C. 2021. Use of Protection Motivation Theory to Assess Preventive Behaviors of COVID-19. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences (JMUMS), 31(195): 19-29. DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-23051/v1
[62] Kim, J., Yang, K., Min, J. and White, B. 2021. Hope, Fear, and Consumer Behavioral Change Amid COVID-19: Application of Protection Motivation Theory. International Journal of Consumers Studies. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/ijcs.12700
[63] Kim, Y.J. and Kang, S.W. 2021. Perceived Crowding and Risk Perception According to Leisure Activity Type during COVID-19 Using Spatial Proximity, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 18(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18020457
[64] Klymanska, L., Klymanska, M. and Haletska, I. 2020. The Lens, Frames and Patterns of Ukrainians: How Perception of Threat and Risk Determines Behavior in the COVID-19 Situation. Journal of Education Culture and Society, 11(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.15503/jecs2020.2.444.460
[65] Kokkoris, M.D. 2020. Choice as a Meaning-Making Device for Maximizers: Evidence from Reactance to Restrictions of Choice Freedom during Lockdown. Frontiers in Psychology, 11: 571462. DOI:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.571462
[66] Korzeb, Z. and Niedziółka, P. 2021. Determinants of Differentiation of Cost of Risk (CoR) among Polish Banks during COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of Risk & Financial Management, 14(3): 1-12. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm14030110
[67] Kozak, M., Crotts, J. C., and Law, R. 2007. The Impact of the Perception of Risk on International Travelers. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(4): 233-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.607
[68] La Foresta, D. and Dziadkiewicz, A. 2020. Health Planning and Crisis Management during the First Wave of the Pandemic: the Case of Italy and Poland - Comparative Study. Gdańsk. Research Institute for European Policy.
[69] Laato, S., Islam, A.K.M.N., Farooq, A. and Dhir, A. 2020. Unusual Purchasing Behavior during the Early Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Stimulus-Organism-Response Approach. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 57: 102224. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2020.102224
[70] Lam, T., and Hsu, C. H. C. 2006. Predicting Behavioral Intention of Choosing a Travel Destination. Tourism Management, 27(4): 589-599. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.02.003
[71] Law, R. 2006. The Perceived Impact of Risks on Travel Decisions. International Journal of Tourism Research, 8(4): 289-300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.576
[72] Li S.R. and Ito, N. 2021. “Nothing Can Stop Me!” Perceived Risk and Travel Intention Amid the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparative Study of Wuhan and Sapporo. Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism: 490-503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65785-7_47
[73] Lim, W.M. 2021. Toward an Agency and Reactance Theory of Crowding: Insights from COVID-19 and the Tourism Industry. Journal of Consumer Behavior: 1–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cb.1948
[74] Lu S. and Wei J. 2019. Public's Perceived Overcrowding Risk and Their Adoption of Precautionary Actions: A Study of Holiday Travel in China. Journal of Risk Research, 22(7): 844-864. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2017.1422784
[75] Ma, H. and Miller, C.H. 2021.The Effects of Agency Assignment and Reference Point on Responses to COVID-19 Messages. Health Communication, 36(1): 59-73. DOI: 10.1080 /10410236.2020/1848066
[76] Maddux, J.E. and Rogers, R.W. 1983. Protection Motivation and Self-Efficacy: A Revised Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(5): 469-479. DOI: 10.1016/0022-1031(83)90023-9
[77] Majeed, S. and Ramkissoon, H. 2020. Health, Wellness, and Place Attachment During and Post Health Pandemics. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.573220
[78] Makhdoomi, U. M. and Baba, M. M. 2019. Destination Image and Travel Intention of Travelers to Jammu & Kashmir: The Mediating Effect of Risk Perception. Journal of Hospitality Application & Research, 14(1): 35-56.
[79] Malova, T.A. 2020. What Signal Paradoxes of Global Economy. Vestnik MGIMO-Universiteta, 13(3): 225-242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24833/2071-8160-2020-3-72-225-242
[80] Martin, D. S., Ramamonjiarivelo, Z. and Martin, W. S. 2011. MEDTOUR: A Scale for Measuring Medical Tourism Intentions. Tourism Review, 66: 45-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/16605371111127233
[81] Matiza, T. and Kruger, M. 2021. Ceding to Their Fears: a Taxonomic Analysis of the Heterogeneity in COVID-19 Associated Perceived Risk and Intended Travel Behavior. Tourism Recreation Research, 46(2): 158-174. DOI: 10.1080 /02508281.2021/1889793
[82] Md Yunus, M., Ang, W.S. and Hashim, H. 2021. Factors Affecting Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL) Postgraduate Students’ Behavioral Intention for On-line Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Sustainability, 13: 3524. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13063524
[83] Mehrolia, S., Alagarsamy, S. and Solaikutty, V. M. 2020. Customers Response to On-line Food Delivery Services During COVID‐19 Outbreak Using Binary Logistic Regression. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 45(3): 396-408. DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12630
[84] Menard, P., Bott, G.J. and Crossler, R.E. 2017. User Motivations in Protecting Information Security: Protection Motivation Theory versus Self-Determination Theory. Journal of Management Information Systems, 34(4): 1203-1230. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2017.1394083
[85] Michie, J. 2020. The Covid-19 Crisis and the Future of the Economy and Economics. International Review of Applied Economics, 34(3): 301-303. DOI: 10.1080 /02692171.2020/1756040
[86] Milne, S., Sheeran, P. and Orbell, S. 2000. Prediction and Intervention in Health-Related Behavior: A Meta-Analytic Review of Protection Motivation Theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30: 106-143. DOI:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02308.x
[87] Miron, A. M. and Brehm, J. W. 2006. Reactance Theory—40 Years Later. Zeitschrift für Sozialpsychologie, 37: 9-18. DOI:10.1024/0044-3514.37.1.9
[88] Mitchell, V. W. and Vassos, V. 1997. Perceived Risk and Risk Reductions in Holiday Purchase: a Cross-Cultural and Gender Analysis. Journal of Euromarketing, 6(3): 47-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1300/J037v06n03
[89] Morakabati, Y. and Kapuściński, G. 2016. Personality, Risk Perception, Benefit Sought and Terrorism Effect. International Journal of Tourism Research, 18: 506-514. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2068
[90] Mortada, E., Abdel-Azeem, A., Al Showair, A. and Zalat, M.M. 2021. Preventive Behaviors towards Covid-19 Pandemic among Healthcare Providers in Saudi Arabia Using the Protection Motivation Theory. Risk Management and Healthcare Policy, 14: 685-694. DOI: 10.2147/RMHP.S289837
[91] Muangmee, C., et al. 2021. Factors Determining the Behavioral Intention of Using Food Delivery Apps during COVID-19 Pandemics. Journal of Theoretical & Applied Electronic Commerce Research, 16(5): 1297-1310. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/jtaer16050073
[92] Neuburger, L. and Egger, R. 2021. Travel Risk Perception and Travel Behavior during the COVID-19 Pandemic 2020: a Case Study of the DACH Region. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 1003-1016. DOI: 10.1080 /13683500.2020/1803807
[93] Nisar, Q. A., et al. 2021. Depletion of Psychological, Financial, and Social Resources in the Hospitality Sector during the Pandemic. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 93: 102794. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102794
[94] Pagliaro, S., et al. 2021. Trust Predicts COVID-19 Prescribed and Discretionary Behavioral Intentions in 23 Countries. PLoS ONE, 16(3): 1-16. DOI: 10.1371-journal.pone.0248334
[95] Park, T., Ju, I., Ohs, J.E. and Hinsley, A. 2021. Optimistic Bias and Preventive Behavioral Engagement in the Context of COVID-19. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 17(1): 1859-1866. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2020.06.004
[96] Perić, G., Dramićanin, S. and Conić, M. 2021. The Impact of Serbian Tourists' Risk Perception on Their Travel Intentions during the COVID-19 Pandemic. European Journal of Tourism Research, 27(1): 1-22.
[97] Quintal, V. A., Lee, J. A. and Soutar, G. N. 2010. Risk, Uncertainty and the Theory of Planned Behavior: A Tourism Example. Tourism Management, 31(6): 797-805. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2009.08.006
[98] Radic, A., et al. 2021. To Dine, or Not to Dine on a Cruise Ship in the Time of the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Tripartite Approach towards an Understanding of Behavioral Intentions among Female Passengers. Sustainability, 13(5): 2516. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052516
[99] Rainear, A.M. and Christensen, J.L. 2017 Protection Motivation Theory as an Explanatory Framework for Pro-environmental Behavioral Intentions. Communication Research Reports, 34(3): 239-248. DOI:10.1080/08824096.2017/12864.
[100] Rains, S.A. 2013. The Nature of Psychological Reactance Revisited: a Meta-Analytic Review. Human Communication Research, 39(1): 47-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2012.01443.x
[101] Rains, S.A. and Turner, M.M. 2007. Psychological Reactance and Persuasive Health Communication: A Test and Extension of the Intertwined Model. Human Communication Research, 33(2): 241-269. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2007.00298.x
[102] Raman, A. and Thannimalai, R. 2021. Factors Impacting the Behavioral Intention to Use E- Learning at Higher Education Amid the Covid-19 Pandemic: UTAUT2 Model. Психологическая наука и образование, 26(3): 82-93. DOI: doi:10.17759/pse.2021260305
[103] Rasoolimanesh, S.M., Seyfi, S., Rastegar, R. and Hall, C.M. 2021. Destination Image during the COVID-19 Pandemic and Future Travel Behavior: The Moderating Role of Past Experience. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management (September), 21: 1000620. DOI: 10.1016/j.jdmm.2021.100620
[104] Rather, R.A. 2021. Monitoring the Impacts of Tourism-Based Social Media, Risk Perception and Fear on Tourist’s Attitude and Revisiting Behavior in the Wake of COVID-19 Pandemic. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(23): 3275-3283. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2021.1884666
[105] Richard T.R., Park, J., Li, S. and Song, H. 2020. Social Costs of Tourism during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Annals of Tourism Research, 84 (September): 102994. DOI: 10.1016/j.annals.2020.102994
[106] Ringler, C., Sirianni, N.J., Gustafsson, A. and Peck, J. 2019. Look But Don’t Touch! The Impact of Active Interpersonal Haptic Blocking on Compensatory Touch and Purchase Behavior. Journal of Retailing, 95(4): 186 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretai.2019.10.007
[107] Rittichainuwat, B. N. and Chakraborty, G. 2009. Perceived Travel Risks Regarding Terrorism and Disease: The Case of Thailand. Tourism Management, 30(3): 410-418. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.08.001
[108] Roehl, W. S. and Fesenmaier, D. R. 1992. Risk Perceptions and Pleasure Travel: an Exploratory Analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 2(4): 17-26.
[109] Rogers R.W. 1975. A Protection Motivation Theory of Fear Appeals and Attitude Change1. The Journal of Psychology, 91(1): 93-114. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1975.9915803
[110] Rogers, R. W. 1983. Cognitive and Psychological Processes in Fear Appeals and Attitude Change: A Revised Theory of Protection Motivation. Social Psychophysiology: A Sourcebook, [in] I. J. C. R. Petty (eds.), Social Psychophysiology, Guilford Press, New York, pp. 153–176.
[111] Rose, J.P. and Edmonds, K.A. 2021. Social Comparisons for Following Health Recommendations and Their Relation to Worry and Intentions during COVID-19. European Journal of Health Psychology, 28(4). DOI:https://doi.org/10.1027/2512-8442/a000080
[112] Sakai, H., Shimizu, M., Yoshimura, T. and Hato, E. 2021. Psychological Reactance to Mobility Restrictions Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Japanese Population Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12: 655022. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.655022
[113] Salisu, A.A. and Vo, X.V. 2020. Predicting Stock Returns in the Presence of COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Health News. International Review of Financial Analysis, 71: 101546. DOI: 10.1016/j.irfa.2020.101546
[114] Samdin, Z., Intan, S., Abdullah, N.W., Khaw, A. and Subramaniam, T. 2021. Travel Risk in the Ecotourism Industry Amid COVID-19 Pandemic: Ecotourists’ Perceptions. Journal of Ecotourism. DOI:10.1080/14724049.2021.1938089
[115] Sánchez-Cañizares, S.M., Cabeza-Ramírez, L. J., Muñoz-Fernández, G. and Fuentes-García, F. J.2021. Impact of the Perceived Risk from Covid-19 on Intention to Travel. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 970-984. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2020.1829571
[116] Seabra, C., Abrantes, J. L. and Kastenholz, E. 2014. The Influence of Terrorism Risk Perception on Purchase Involvement and Safety Concern of International Travelers. Journal of Marketing Management, 30 (9-10): 874-903. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/0267257X.2014.934904
[117] Shapiro, S.L., Drayer, J. and Dwyer B. 2020. An Examination of Consumer Reactance to Daily Fantasy Sport and Sport Gambling Regulatory Restrictions. Sport Management Review, 23(5): 797-809. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smr.2020.02.006
[118] Silva, M. F. G. 2020. Uma História Sobre Pandemia (Covid-19), Isolamento E Fundamentos Microeconômicos De Políticas Públicas. (Portuguese), A Story about Pandemic (Covid-19), Isolation, And Microeconomic Fundamentals of Public Policies. (English), Cadernos de Gestão Pública e Cidadania, 25(80): 1-11. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12660/cgpc.v25n80.81290
[119] Sonmez, S. F. and Graefe, A. R. 1998. Determining Future Travel Behavior from Past Travel Experience and Perceptions of Risk and Safety. Journal of Travel Research, 37(2): 171-177.
[120] Sparks, B. 2007. Planning a Wine Tourism Vacation? Factors that Help to Predict Tourist Behavioral Intentions. Tourism Management, 28(5): 1180-1192. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.11.003
[121] Sparks, B. and Pan, G.W. 2009. Chinese Outbound Tourists: Understanding Their Attitudes, Constraints and Use of Information Sources. Tourism Management, 30: 483-494. DOI: 10.1016/j.tourman.2008.10.014
[122] Sprengholz, P. and Betsch, C. 2020. Herd Immunity Communication Counters Detrimental Effects of Selective Vaccination Mandates: Experimental Evidence. EClinicalMedicine, 22: 100353. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2020.100352
[123] Sprengholz, P., Betsch, C., Böhm, R. 2021. Reactance Revisited: Consequences of Mandatory and Scarce Vaccination in the Case of COVID-19. Applied Psychology: Health Well – Being (May): 1-10. DOI:10.1111/aphw.12285
[124] Sumaedi, S., et al. 2021. Factors Influencing Intention to Follow the “Stay at Home” Policy during the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Health Governance, 26(1). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/IJHG-05-2020-0046
[125] Thorbecke, W. 2020. The Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on the U.S. Economy: Evidence from the Stock Market. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13(10): 233. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13100233
[126] Thorpe, A., et al. 2021. Exposure to Common Geographic COVID-19 Prevalence Maps and Public Knowledge, Risk Perceptions, and Behavioral Intentions. JAMA Network Open, 4(1): e2033538. DOI:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.33538
[127] Trifiletti, E., Shamloo, S.E., Faccini M. and Zaka, A. 2021. Psychological Predictors of Protective Behaviors during the Covid-19 Pandemic: Theory of Planned Behavior and Risk Perception. Journal of Community Applied Social Psychology (March). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2509
[128] Tsai, H.S., et al. 2016. Understanding On-line Safety Behaviors: A Protection Motivation Theory Perspective. Computers & Security, 59: 138-150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2016.02.009
[129] Um, S. and Crompton, J. L. 1992. The Roles of Perceived Inhibitors and Facilitators in Pleasure Travel Destination Decisions. Journal of Travel Research, 30(3): 18-25. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/004728759203000303
[130] Verkoeyen S. and Nepal S.K., 2019. Understanding Scuba Divers' Response to Coral Beaching: An Application of Protection Motivation Theory. Journal of Environmental Management, 231: 869-877. DOI:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.030
[131] Viswanath, K., et al. 2021. Individual and Social Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccine Uptake. BMC Public Health, 21, 818. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10862-1
[132] Vlados, C. 2020. Development and Underdevelopment from the Perspective of Evolutionary Socioeconomics in the Post-COVID-19 Era. Journal of Economic and Social Thought, 7(4): 181-212. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1453/jest.v7i4.2150
[133] Wang, C., et al. 2019. The Impact of Behavioral Reference on Tourists' Responsible Environmental Behaviors. Science of The Total Environment, 694: 133698. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.133698
[134] Wang, J., Liu-Lastres, B., Ritchie, B.W. and Mills, D.J. 2019. Travelers' Self-protections Against Health Risks: An Application of the Full Protection Motivation Theory. “Annals of Tourism Research”, 78: 102743. DOI:10.1016/j.annals.2019.102743
[135] Wang, W.C., Lin, C.-H., Lu, W.-B. and Lee, S.-H. 2019. When Destination Attractiveness Shifts in Response to Climate Change: Tourists' Adaptation Intention in Taiwan's Kenting National Park. Current Issues in Tourism, 22(5): 522-543. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2018.1437715
[136] Wojciszke, B. 2020. Psychologia społeczna. Warsaw. Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar [in Polish]
[137] Wong, J. Y. and Yeh, C. 2009. Tourist Hesitation in Destination Decision Making. Annals of Tourism Research, 36(1): 6-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2008.09.005
[138] Yamashita T., Yamashita K. and Kamimura R. 2007. A Stepwise AIC Method for Variable Selection in Linear Regression. Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods, 36(13): 2395-2403. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/03610920701215639
[139] Yang, C. L. and Nair, V. 2014. Risk Perception Study in Tourism: Are We Really Measuring Perceived Risk? Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 144: 322-327. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.302
[140] Yao, X., Zhang, L., Du, J. and Gao, L. 2021. Effect of Information-Motivation-Behavioral Model Based on Protection Motivation Theory on the Psychological Resilience and Quality of Life of Patients with Type 2 DM. Psychiatric Quarterly, 92(1): 49-62. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11126-020-09783-w
[141] Yaprak, Ü., Kılıç, F. and Okumuş, A. 2021. Is the Covid-19 Pandemic Strong Enough to Change the On-line Order Delivery Methods? Changes in the Relationship between Attitude and Behavior towards Order Delivery by Drone. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 169: 120829. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.120829
[142] Youn, S. and Kim, S. 2019. Understanding Ad Avoidance on Facebook: Antecedents and Outcomes of Psychological Reactance. Computers in Human Behaviorm 98: 232-244. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.04.025
[143] Zhang, K., Hou, Y. and Li, G. 2020. Threat of Infectious Disease during an Outbreak: Influence on Tourists' Emotional Responses to Disadvantaged Price Inequality. Annals of Tourism Research. DOI:10.1016/j.annals.2020.102993
[144] Zheng, D., Lou, Q. and Ritchie B.W. 2021. Afraid to Travel After COVID-19? Self-Protection, Coping and Resilience against Pandemic ‘Travel Fear’. Tourism Management, 83: 104261.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2020.104261
[145] Zhu, H. and Deng, F.2020. How to Influence Rural Tourism Intention by Risk Knowledge during COVID-19 Containment in China: Mediating Role of Risk Perception and Attitude. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17: 3514. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17103514
[146] Zielinski, S and Botero, C.M. 2020. Beach Tourism in Times of COVID-19 Pandemic: Critical Issues. Knowledge Gaps and Research Opportunities. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17: 7288. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17197288.
Published
2021-12-29
How to Cite
BĘBEN, Robert et al.
Tourist Behavioral Intentions during the COVID-19 Pandemic. The Role of Reactance, Perceived Risk and Protection Motivation.
Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, [S.l.], v. 12, n. 8, p. 2129 - 2147, dec. 2021.
ISSN 2068-7729.
Available at: <https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jemt/article/view/6657>. Date accessed: 23 nov. 2024.
Section
Article
Copyright© 2024 The Author(s). Published by ASERS Publishing 2024. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of CC-BY 4.0 license.