Comparative Analysis of International and Legal Documents on Tourism and Counteraction to the Threat of International Terrorism
Abstract
International terrorism is the deliberate use or threat of violence against civilians in order to achieve political goals. Terrorist acts, local or international, cause immediate human, economic and psychological consequences of varying intensity. However, their influence does not stop there, because most of the indirect effects, which are widely diversified by types of activity, regions, countries and time are observed. The problem of international regulatory security provision of international tourism is one of the most acute and at the same time complex, but the solution of which must be found without delay due to terrorist attacks on tourist centers in 2014-2016. As a result of the research with the help of comparative analysis and problem-chronological method it was proved that in international law there is no modern single standard adopted in the framework of the World Tourism Organization to prevent terrorist threats to international tourism and tourists. For the first time, the concept of such a document was proposed. The approaches to understanding not only the essence of the terrorist threat as anthropological factors but also the economic basis is comprehensively defined in the study.
References
[1] Akhmat, G., Zaman, K., Shukui, T., & Sajjad, F. 2014. Exploring the root causes of terrorism in South Asia: everybody should be concerned. Quality & Quantity, 48(6): 3065-3079.
[2] Baker, D. M. A. 2015. Tourism and Terrorism: Terrorists Threats to Commercial Aviation Safety & Security. International Journal of Safety and Security in Tourism and Hospitality, 1(12): 1–18.
[3] Bakkal, I., & Scaperlanda, A. 1991. Characteristics of U.S. demand for European tourism. Review of World Economics, 127(1): 119-137.
[4] Berkowicz, S. M. 2011. Eco-Terrorism/Enviro-Terrorism: Background, Prospects, Countermeasures. In: Alpas, H., Berkowicz, S.M., & Ermakova, I. (Eds.), Environmental Security and Ecoterrorism. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 15-29.
[5] Brunt, P., & Cousins, K. 2002. The Extent of the Impact of Terrorism on International Travel and Tourism at Specific Tourist Destinations. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 4(3): 7-21.
[6] Brunt, P., & Hambly, Z. 1999. Tourism and Crime: A Research Agenda. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 1(2): 25-36.
[7] Cockerell, N. 1990. Factors Affecting Tourism. In: Quest, M. (Ed.), Horwath Book of Tourism. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 128-135.
[8] Cohen, J. 2015. Tourism and the Perceived Risk of Terrorism. In: Thomas, E. G. & Rao, S. R. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1988 International Conference of Services Marketing. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 47-60.
[9] Cousins, K., & Brunt, P. 2002. Terrorism, Tourism and the Media. Security Journal, 15(1): 19-32.
[10] Crain, N. V., & Crain, W. M. 2006. Terrorized economies. Public Choice, 128(1): 317-349.
[11] Czinkota, M. R., Knight, G., Liesch, P. W., & Steen, J. 2010. Terrorism and international business: A research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(5): 826-843.
[12] El-Said, H., & Barrett, R. 2011. Radicalisation and Extremism that Lead to Terrorism. In Harrigan, J., & El-Said, H. (Eds.), Globalisation, Democratisation and Radicalisation in the Arab World. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 199-235.
[13] Feichtinger, G., Hartl, R. F., Kort, P. M., & Novak, A. J. 2001. Terrorism Control in the Tourism Industry. Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 108(2): 283-296.
[14] Fischer, S. 2010. Travelling for Peace: The Role of Tourism in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. In Deitelhoff, N., & Wolf, K.D. (Eds.), Corporate Security Responsibility? Corporate Governance Contributions to Peace and Security in Zones of Conflict. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 130-153.
[15] Frey, B. S. 2008. Terrorism from the Rational Choice Point of View. In: Diekmann, A., Eichner, K., P. Schmidt, & T. Voss (Eds.), Rational Choice: Theoretische Analysen und empirische Resultate: Festschrift für Karl-Dieter Opp zum 70. Geburtstag. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 211-222.
[16] Frey, B.S. 2008. Terrorism from the Rational Choice Point of View. In: Diekmann, A., Eichner, K., Schmidt, P., & Voss, T. (Eds.), Rational Choice: Theoretische Analysen und Empirische Resultate: Festschrift für Karl-Dieter Opp zum 70. Geburtstag. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 211-222.
[17] Ganor, B. 2011. Trends in Modern International Terrorism. In: Weisburd, D., Feucht, T., Hakimi, I., Mock, L., & Perry, S. (Eds.), To Protect and To Serve: Policing in an Age of Terrorism. New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 11-42.
[18] Gelbman, A. 2015. Tourism along the geopolitical barrier: implications of the Holy Land fence. Geo Journal, 1–10.
[19] Goldman, O. S., & Neubauer-Shani, M. 2016. Does International Tourism Affect Transnational Terrorism? Journal of Travel Research. Available at: http://doi.org/10.1177/0047287516649059 (Date Accessed: 05.02.2017).
[20] Haddad, M., & Hakim, S. 2008. The impact of war and terrorism on sovereign risk in the Middle East. Journal of Derivatives & Hedge Funds, 14(3): 237-250.
[21] Howie, L., & Campbell, P. 2017. Security Guards and Counter-terrorism: Gaps in Terrorism Prevention Crisis and Terror in the Age of Anxiety: 9/11, the Global Financial Crisis and ISIS. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 177-192.
[22] Hudman, L. E., & Davis, J. A. 1994. Changes and patterns of origin regions of international tourism. Geo Journal, 34(4): 481-490.
[23] Islam, M.Q., & Shahin, W.N. 2001. Applying economic methodology to the war on terrorism. Forum for Social Economics, 31(1): 7-26.
[24] Joshi, O., Poudyal, N.C., & Larson, L.R. 2017. The influence of sociopolitical, natural, and cultural factors on international tourism growth: a cross-country panel analysis. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 19(3): 825-838.
[25] Kellner, D. 2005. Globalization, Terrorism and Democracy: 9/11 and its Aftermath. In: Hayden, P., & el-Ojeili, C. (Eds.), Confronting Globalization: Humanity, Justice and the Renewal of Politics. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 172-188.
[26] Khan, A., Estrada, M. A. R., & Yusof, Z. 2016. How terrorism affects the economic performance? The case of Pakistan. Quality & Quantity, 50(2): 867-883.
[27] Korstanje, M.E. 2018. The Concept of Civility and Law Terrorism, Tourism and the End of Hospitality in the 'West'. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 31-55.
[28] Korstanje, M.E. 2018. The Problem of Terrorism, Tourism and the End of Hospitality in the 'West'. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 81-104.
[29] Korstanje, M.E. 2018. The Travel and Tourism Industry Terrorism, Tourism and the End of Hospitality in the 'West'. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 105-126.
[30] Lawless, W. F., Bergman, M., Louçã, J., Kriegel, N.N., & Feltovich, N. 2007. A quantum metric of organizational performance: Terrorism and counterterrorism. Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory, 13(3): 241-281.
[31] Lee, A. 2009. Trends in International Terrorism against Business Targets. In: Ibeh, K., & Davies, S. (Eds.), Contemporary Challenges to International Business. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 251-268.
[32] Levy, S.E., & Hawkins, D.E. 2009. Peace Through Tourism: Commerce Based Principles and Practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(4): 569-585.
[33] Lutz, B.J., & Lutz, J.M. 2017. Globalization, Terrorism, and the Economy Globalization and the Economic Consequences of Terrorism. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 1-30.
[34] Mansfeld, Y. 2014. Terrorism, tourism. In: Jafari, J. & Xiao, H. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Tourism. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1-3.
[35] Mawby, R.I. 2014. Crime and Disorder, Security and the Tourism Industry. In: Gill, M. (Ed.), The Handbook of Security. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 383-403.
[36] Miller, M.L., & Hadley, N.P. (2005). Tourism and Coastal Development. In: Schwartz, M. L. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1002-1009.
[37] Nassani, A.A., Zaman, K., Aldakhil, A.M., & Abro, M.M.Q. 2017. War economy and pleasure: assessing the effects of military expenditure on tourism growth. Quality & Quantity, 51(4): 1733-1754.
[38] Neumayer, E., & Plümper, T. 2016. Spatial spill-overs from terrorism on tourism: Western victims in Islamic destination countries. Public Choice, 169(3): 195-206.
[39] Paul, D., Bungar, N.G., & Mester, L.E. 2015. Terrorism and its impacts on the tourism industry. Romanian Review on Political Geography / Revista Româna Geografie Politica, 17(1): 5–11.
[40] Pemberton, A. 2010. Needs of Victims of Terrorism. In: Letschert, R., Pemberton, A., & Staiger, I. (Eds.), Assisting Victims of Terrorism: Towards a European Standard of Justice. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 73-141.
[41] Porter, M.D., White, G., & Mazerolle, L. 2012. Innovative Methods for Terrorism and Counterterrorism Data. In: Lum, C., & Kennedy, L.W. (Eds.), Evidence-Based Counterterrorism Policy. New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 91-112.
[42] Puczkó, L., & Smith, M. 2012. An Analysis of Tourism QOL Domains from the Demand Side. In: Uysal, M., Perdue, R., & Sirgy, M.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Tourism and Quality-of-Life Research: Enhancing the Lives of Tourists and Residents of Host Communities. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 263-277.
[43] Tsamboulas, D., & Moraiti, P. 2008. Identification of potential target locations and attractiveness assessment due to terrorism in the freight transport. Journal of Transportation Security, 1(3): 189-207.
[2] Baker, D. M. A. 2015. Tourism and Terrorism: Terrorists Threats to Commercial Aviation Safety & Security. International Journal of Safety and Security in Tourism and Hospitality, 1(12): 1–18.
[3] Bakkal, I., & Scaperlanda, A. 1991. Characteristics of U.S. demand for European tourism. Review of World Economics, 127(1): 119-137.
[4] Berkowicz, S. M. 2011. Eco-Terrorism/Enviro-Terrorism: Background, Prospects, Countermeasures. In: Alpas, H., Berkowicz, S.M., & Ermakova, I. (Eds.), Environmental Security and Ecoterrorism. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 15-29.
[5] Brunt, P., & Cousins, K. 2002. The Extent of the Impact of Terrorism on International Travel and Tourism at Specific Tourist Destinations. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 4(3): 7-21.
[6] Brunt, P., & Hambly, Z. 1999. Tourism and Crime: A Research Agenda. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, 1(2): 25-36.
[7] Cockerell, N. 1990. Factors Affecting Tourism. In: Quest, M. (Ed.), Horwath Book of Tourism. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 128-135.
[8] Cohen, J. 2015. Tourism and the Perceived Risk of Terrorism. In: Thomas, E. G. & Rao, S. R. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 1988 International Conference of Services Marketing. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 47-60.
[9] Cousins, K., & Brunt, P. 2002. Terrorism, Tourism and the Media. Security Journal, 15(1): 19-32.
[10] Crain, N. V., & Crain, W. M. 2006. Terrorized economies. Public Choice, 128(1): 317-349.
[11] Czinkota, M. R., Knight, G., Liesch, P. W., & Steen, J. 2010. Terrorism and international business: A research agenda. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(5): 826-843.
[12] El-Said, H., & Barrett, R. 2011. Radicalisation and Extremism that Lead to Terrorism. In Harrigan, J., & El-Said, H. (Eds.), Globalisation, Democratisation and Radicalisation in the Arab World. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 199-235.
[13] Feichtinger, G., Hartl, R. F., Kort, P. M., & Novak, A. J. 2001. Terrorism Control in the Tourism Industry. Journal of Optimization Theory and Applications, 108(2): 283-296.
[14] Fischer, S. 2010. Travelling for Peace: The Role of Tourism in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict. In Deitelhoff, N., & Wolf, K.D. (Eds.), Corporate Security Responsibility? Corporate Governance Contributions to Peace and Security in Zones of Conflict. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 130-153.
[15] Frey, B. S. 2008. Terrorism from the Rational Choice Point of View. In: Diekmann, A., Eichner, K., P. Schmidt, & T. Voss (Eds.), Rational Choice: Theoretische Analysen und empirische Resultate: Festschrift für Karl-Dieter Opp zum 70. Geburtstag. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 211-222.
[16] Frey, B.S. 2008. Terrorism from the Rational Choice Point of View. In: Diekmann, A., Eichner, K., Schmidt, P., & Voss, T. (Eds.), Rational Choice: Theoretische Analysen und Empirische Resultate: Festschrift für Karl-Dieter Opp zum 70. Geburtstag. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, pp. 211-222.
[17] Ganor, B. 2011. Trends in Modern International Terrorism. In: Weisburd, D., Feucht, T., Hakimi, I., Mock, L., & Perry, S. (Eds.), To Protect and To Serve: Policing in an Age of Terrorism. New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 11-42.
[18] Gelbman, A. 2015. Tourism along the geopolitical barrier: implications of the Holy Land fence. Geo Journal, 1–10.
[19] Goldman, O. S., & Neubauer-Shani, M. 2016. Does International Tourism Affect Transnational Terrorism? Journal of Travel Research. Available at: http://doi.org/10.1177/0047287516649059 (Date Accessed: 05.02.2017).
[20] Haddad, M., & Hakim, S. 2008. The impact of war and terrorism on sovereign risk in the Middle East. Journal of Derivatives & Hedge Funds, 14(3): 237-250.
[21] Howie, L., & Campbell, P. 2017. Security Guards and Counter-terrorism: Gaps in Terrorism Prevention Crisis and Terror in the Age of Anxiety: 9/11, the Global Financial Crisis and ISIS. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 177-192.
[22] Hudman, L. E., & Davis, J. A. 1994. Changes and patterns of origin regions of international tourism. Geo Journal, 34(4): 481-490.
[23] Islam, M.Q., & Shahin, W.N. 2001. Applying economic methodology to the war on terrorism. Forum for Social Economics, 31(1): 7-26.
[24] Joshi, O., Poudyal, N.C., & Larson, L.R. 2017. The influence of sociopolitical, natural, and cultural factors on international tourism growth: a cross-country panel analysis. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 19(3): 825-838.
[25] Kellner, D. 2005. Globalization, Terrorism and Democracy: 9/11 and its Aftermath. In: Hayden, P., & el-Ojeili, C. (Eds.), Confronting Globalization: Humanity, Justice and the Renewal of Politics. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 172-188.
[26] Khan, A., Estrada, M. A. R., & Yusof, Z. 2016. How terrorism affects the economic performance? The case of Pakistan. Quality & Quantity, 50(2): 867-883.
[27] Korstanje, M.E. 2018. The Concept of Civility and Law Terrorism, Tourism and the End of Hospitality in the 'West'. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 31-55.
[28] Korstanje, M.E. 2018. The Problem of Terrorism, Tourism and the End of Hospitality in the 'West'. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 81-104.
[29] Korstanje, M.E. 2018. The Travel and Tourism Industry Terrorism, Tourism and the End of Hospitality in the 'West'. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 105-126.
[30] Lawless, W. F., Bergman, M., Louçã, J., Kriegel, N.N., & Feltovich, N. 2007. A quantum metric of organizational performance: Terrorism and counterterrorism. Computational and Mathematical Organization Theory, 13(3): 241-281.
[31] Lee, A. 2009. Trends in International Terrorism against Business Targets. In: Ibeh, K., & Davies, S. (Eds.), Contemporary Challenges to International Business. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 251-268.
[32] Levy, S.E., & Hawkins, D.E. 2009. Peace Through Tourism: Commerce Based Principles and Practices. Journal of Business Ethics, 89(4): 569-585.
[33] Lutz, B.J., & Lutz, J.M. 2017. Globalization, Terrorism, and the Economy Globalization and the Economic Consequences of Terrorism. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 1-30.
[34] Mansfeld, Y. 2014. Terrorism, tourism. In: Jafari, J. & Xiao, H. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Tourism. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1-3.
[35] Mawby, R.I. 2014. Crime and Disorder, Security and the Tourism Industry. In: Gill, M. (Ed.), The Handbook of Security. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, pp. 383-403.
[36] Miller, M.L., & Hadley, N.P. (2005). Tourism and Coastal Development. In: Schwartz, M. L. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Coastal Science. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1002-1009.
[37] Nassani, A.A., Zaman, K., Aldakhil, A.M., & Abro, M.M.Q. 2017. War economy and pleasure: assessing the effects of military expenditure on tourism growth. Quality & Quantity, 51(4): 1733-1754.
[38] Neumayer, E., & Plümper, T. 2016. Spatial spill-overs from terrorism on tourism: Western victims in Islamic destination countries. Public Choice, 169(3): 195-206.
[39] Paul, D., Bungar, N.G., & Mester, L.E. 2015. Terrorism and its impacts on the tourism industry. Romanian Review on Political Geography / Revista Româna Geografie Politica, 17(1): 5–11.
[40] Pemberton, A. 2010. Needs of Victims of Terrorism. In: Letschert, R., Pemberton, A., & Staiger, I. (Eds.), Assisting Victims of Terrorism: Towards a European Standard of Justice. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 73-141.
[41] Porter, M.D., White, G., & Mazerolle, L. 2012. Innovative Methods for Terrorism and Counterterrorism Data. In: Lum, C., & Kennedy, L.W. (Eds.), Evidence-Based Counterterrorism Policy. New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 91-112.
[42] Puczkó, L., & Smith, M. 2012. An Analysis of Tourism QOL Domains from the Demand Side. In: Uysal, M., Perdue, R., & Sirgy, M.J. (Eds.), Handbook of Tourism and Quality-of-Life Research: Enhancing the Lives of Tourists and Residents of Host Communities. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 263-277.
[43] Tsamboulas, D., & Moraiti, P. 2008. Identification of potential target locations and attractiveness assessment due to terrorism in the freight transport. Journal of Transportation Security, 1(3): 189-207.
Published
2018-01-24
How to Cite
ALEYNIKOV, Boris N. et al.
Comparative Analysis of International and Legal Documents on Tourism and Counteraction to the Threat of International Terrorism.
Journal of Environmental Management and Tourism, [S.l.], v. 8, n. 6, p. 1291-1307, jan. 2018.
ISSN 2068-7729.
Available at: <https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jemt/article/view/1659>. Date accessed: 23 dec. 2024.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14505//jemt.v8.6(22).17.
Section
Article
Copyright© 2024 The Author(s). Published by ASERS Publishing 2024. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of CC-BY 4.0 license.