Nonlinear Dynamic Language Learning Theory in AI-Mediated EFL: From Theory to Practice
Abstract
Grounded in a critical-realist ontology and a pragmatic-constructivist epistemology, this study operationalizes Nonlinear Dynamic Language Learning Theory (NDLLT) in AI-mediated EFL classrooms and empirically examines motivation as a fluctuating, history-dependent system. A 12-week randomized controlled trial (N = 784; CEFR B2–C1) compared three collaborative AI conditions (AI-enhanced Socrative, team-based Kahoot!, adaptive Duolingo + collaborative production) with an active CALL control. Outcomes included TOEFL iBT skills, a 50-item NDLLS motivation scale, an 18-item feedback survey, and interviews. MANCOVA/ANCOVA tested group differences; cross-lagged structural models estimated coupling between proficiency gains and motivational change; nonlinear time-series analyses (e.g., recurrence quantification, detrended fluctuation analysis) characterized attractor strength, variability, and phase shifts. Relative to CALL, AI conditions produced larger gains in reading and writing and more time in high-engagement attractor states, moderated by emotion regulation and peer collaboration. Engagement micro-variability prospectively predicted proficiency gains, consistent with NDLLT’s phase-shift hypothesis. Implementation fidelity (≥90%) and accessibility/fairness safeguards supported validity. Findings depict proficiency and motivation as co-evolving trajectories within learner–AI–peer ecologies and argue for proficiency-sensitive scaffolding that tunes control parameters (challenge–skill balance, feedback timing, peer coupling) rather than prescribing linear sequences. The study offers design and evaluation principles for equitable, scalable AI integration in EFL contexts.
References
[1] Anderson, J. R. (2013). The architecture of cognition. Psychology Press.
[2] Antonenko, D., Diekelmann, S., Olsen, C., Born, J., & Mölle, M. (2013). Napping to renew learning capacity: Enhanced encoding after stimulation of sleep slow oscillations. European Journal of Neuroscience, 37(7), 1142-1151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.12118
[3] Atkinson, D., Mejía‐Laguna, J., Ribeiro, A. C., Cappellini, M., Kayi‐Aydar, H., & Lowie, W. (2025). Relationality, interconnectedness, and identity: A process‐focused approach to second language acquisition and teaching (SLA/T). The Modern Language Journal, 109(S1), 39-63. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12982
[4] Banks, J. (2019). A perceived moral agency scale: Development and validation of a metric for humans and social machines. Computers in Human Behavior, 90, 363-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.028
[5] Bastiaansen, M. C., Van Der Linden, M., Ter Keurs, M., Dijkstra, T., & Hagoort, P. (2005). Theta responses are involved in lexical - semantic retrieval during language processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(3), 530-541. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929053279469
[6] Biber, D., Gray, B., & Staples, S. (2016). Grammatical complexity in academic English: Linguistic change in writing. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316661278
[7] Bonabeau, E., Dorigo, M., & Theraulaz, G. (1999). Swarm intelligence: From natural to artificial systems. Oxford University Press.
[8] Bonte, M., & Brem, S. (2024). Unraveling individual differences in learning potential: A dynamic framework for the case of reading development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 101362. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101362
[9] Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press.
[10] Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141-178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0202_2
[11] Brysbaert, M., Mandera, P., & Keuleers, E. (2018). The word frequency effect in word processing: An updated review. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(1), 45-50. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417727521
[12] Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81-105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046016
[13] Carbajal-Carrera, B., & Prestigiacomo, R. (2025). Rhizomatic approaches: A response to hierarchies, linearity, and isolation in language learning. In The Routledge handbook of endangered and minority languages (pp. 392-406). Routledge.
[14] Chen, T., & Guestrin, C. (2016). XGBoost: A scalable tree boosting system. In Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining (pp. 785-794). ACM.
[15] Cheng, R. (2025). Examining the impact of online help-seeking strategies on promoting EFL learners' self-regulated and collaborative learning skills, language learning outcomes, and perceptions in CALL environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 63(1.) DOI: 10.1177/07356331241301226
[16] Choi, S., Jang, Y., & Kim, H. (2023). Influence of pedagogical beliefs and perceived trust on teachers' acceptance of educational artificial intelligence tools. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 39(4), 910-922. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2049145
[17] Clark, A. (2013). Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(3), 181-204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12000477
[18] Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998). The extended mind. Analysis, 58(1), 7-19. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/58.1.7
[19] Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238. DOI:https://doi.org/10.2307/3587951
[20] Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.
[21] De Bot, K. (2008). Introduction: Second language development as a dynamic process. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 166-178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00712.x
[22] De Bot, K., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2007). A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 7-21. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732
[23] Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press.
[24] DeKeyser, R. (2020). Skill acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten, G. D. Keating, & S. Wulff (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 83-104). Routledge.
[25] Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. McGraw-Hill.
[26] Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019). BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In Proceedings of NAACL-HLT 2019 (pp. 4171-4186). DOI:https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/N19-1423
[27] Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Researching complex dynamic systems: 'Retrodictive qualitative modelling' in the language classroom. Language Teaching, 47(1), 80-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444811000516
[28] Duan, S., & Shi, Z. (2024). A longitudinal study of formulaic sequence use in second language writing: Complex dynamic systems perspective. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 497-530. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211002942
[29] Dunbar, N. E., Brooks, C. F., & Kubicka-Miller, T. (2006). Oral communication skills in higher education: Using a performance-based evaluation rubric to assess communication skills. Innovative Higher Education, 31, 115-128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-006-9012-x
[30] Ebadi, S., & Rahimi, M. (2018). An exploration into the impact of WebQuest-based classroom on EFL learners' critical thinking and academic writing skills: A mixed-methods study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(5-6), 617-651. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1449757
[31] Ellis, N. C. (2008). The dynamics of second language emergence: Cycles of language use, language change, and language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 232-249. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00716.x
[32] Fleckenstein, J., Liebenow, L. W., & Meyer, J. (2023). Automated feedback and writing: A multi-level meta-analysis of effects on students' performance. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 6, 1162454. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1162454
[33] Friederici, A. D., & Gierhan, S. M. (2013). The language network. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(2), 250-254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2012.10.002
[34] Garofolo, J. S., Lamel, L. F., Fisher, W. M., Fiscus, J. G., & Pallett, D. S. (1993). DARPA TIMIT acoustic-phonetic continuous speech corpus. Linguistic Data Consortium. https://catalog.ldc.upenn.edu/LDC93S1
[35] Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing (pp. 67-82). Erlbaum.
[36] Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (2017). Discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Routledge.
[37] Gleick, J. (2008). Chaos: Making a new science. Penguin.
[38] Goldberg, D. E. (1989). Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning. Addison-Wesley.
[39] Granena, G., & Long, M. H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29(3), 311-343. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312461497
[40] Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29(3), 369-388. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088312451260
[41] Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
[42] Hesling, I., Labache, L., Joliot, M., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2019). Large-scale plurimodal networks are common to listening to, producing and reading word lists: An fMRI study combining task-induced activation and intrinsic connectivity in 144 right-handers. Brain Structure and Function, 224(9), 3075-3094. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-019-01951-4
[43] Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural Computation, 9(8), 1735-1780. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735
[44] Hohenberger, A., & Peltzer-Karpf, A. (2009). Language learning from the perspective of nonlinear dynamic systems. Linguistics, 47(2), 481-511. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/LING.2009.017
[45] Holland, J. H. (2002). Complex adaptive systems and spontaneous emergence. In A. Quadrio Curzio & M. Fortis (Eds.), Complexity and industrial clusters: Dynamics and models in theory and practice (pp. 25-34). Physica-Verlag HD. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-50007-7_3
[46] Hollnagel, E., & Woods, D. D. (2005). Joint cognitive systems: Foundations of cognitive systems engineering. CRC Press.
[47] Housen, A., Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2012). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency: Definitions, measurement, and research. In A. Housen, F. Kuiken, & I. Vedder (Eds.), Dimensions of L2 performance and proficiency (pp. 1-20). John Benjamins. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.32
[48] Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. MIT Press.
[49] Hyland, K. (2016). Teaching and researching writing (3rd ed.). Routledge. DOI:https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833725
[50] Jang, E. E., Hunte, M., Barron, C., & Hannah, L. (2023). Exploring the role of self-regulation in young learners' writing assessment and intervention using BalanceAI automated diagnostic feedback. In M. Poehner & O. Inbar-Lourie (Eds.), Fundamental considerations in technology mediated language assessment (pp. 31-48). Routledge.
[51] Jiang, J., Bi, P., & Liu, H. (2023). Collocation networks in L2 writing development. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 61(3), 1057-1085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2019-0147
[52] Jiang, L., & Alotaibi, F. S. (2022). Investigation of English grammar application ability of college students using dynamic nonlinear system theory. Fractals, 30(02). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218348X22400825
[53] Jiang, X., & Yu, Z. (2025). Exploring the impact of learner- and peer-help seeking strategies on cognitive load reduction and self-regulated learning skills enhancement. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-20. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2457352
[54] Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155-163. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
[55] Kumari, A., Kakkar, R., Tanwar, S., Garg, D., Polkowski, Z., Alqahtani, F., & Tolba, A. (2024). Multi-agent-based decentralized residential energy management using deep reinforcement learning. Journal of Building Engineering, 87, 109031. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109031
[56] Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 18(2), 141-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/18.2.141
[57] Larsen-Freeman, D. (2007). On the complementarity of chaos/complexity theory and dynamic systems theory in understanding the second language acquisition process. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 35-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672890600277X
[58] Larsen-Freeman, D. (2019). On language learner agency: A complex dynamic systems theory perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 61-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12536
[59] Larsen-Freeman, D. (2020). Complex dynamic systems theory. In B. VanPatten, G. D. Keating, & S. Wulff (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 248-270). Routledge.
[60] Linacre, J. M. (2020). A user's guide to FACETS: Rasch-model computer programs. Winsteps.
[61] Liu, Y. (2024a). The impact of bi/multilingualism on brain activity in dual language education based on smart technologies: Neurolinguistic aspect. Education and Information Technologies, 29(14), 18299-18321. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12571-9
[62] Liu, Z. (2024b). Effects of nonlinear dynamic online assessment model on language learners' learning outcomes and cognitive load. Education and Information Technologies, 1-30. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12816-7
[63] Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2015). Variability and variation in second language acquisition orders: A dynamic reevaluation. Language Learning, 65(1), 63-88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12093
[64] Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press.
[65] McAuliffe, M., Socolof, M., Mihuc, S., Wagner, M., & Sonderegger, M. (2017). Montreal forced aligner: Trainable text-speech alignment using Kaldi. In Proceedings of Interspeech 2017 (pp. 498-502). DOI:https://doi.org/10.21437/Interspeech.2017-1386
[66] Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741-749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
[67] Michel, M., Atkinson, D., Ribeiro, A. C., Alexopoulou, T., Cappellini, M., Eskildsen, S. W., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Forging common ground in second language acquisition and teaching: A combined synergy statement. The Modern Language Journal, 109(S1), 90-103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12983
[68] Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2012). Bayesian structural equation modeling: A more flexible representation of substantive theory. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 313-335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026802
[69] Nassaji, H., & Fotos, S. (2020). The role of explicit metalinguistic knowledge in instructed SLA: A cognitive load theory perspective. Modern Language Journal, 104(3), 530-548. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12656
[70] Nation, I. S. P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 59-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59
[71] Newell, A. (1990). Unified theories of cognition. Harvard University Press.
[72] Nicholls, D. (2003). The Cambridge learner corpus: Error coding and analysis for lexicography and ELT. In Proceedings of the corpus linguistics 2003 conference (pp. 572-581). Lancaster University.
[73] Nyatsanga, S., Kucherenko, T., Ahuja, C., Henter, G. E., & Neff, M. (2023). A comprehensive review of data-driven co-speech gesture generation. Computer Graphics Forum, 42(2), 569-596. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.14776
[74] Pascual-Leone, A., Amedi, A., Fregni, F., & Merabet, L. B. (2005). The plastic human brain cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28(1), 377-401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144216
[75] Perfetti, C. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357-383. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701530730
[76] Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(3), 801-813. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053003024
[77] Ranjbar, M., Hassanzadeh, M., & Roghanian, A. (2025). Unveiling the complexity of L2 learners' emotions and emotion regulation: A retrodictive qualitative modeling study. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 134-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12606
[78] Révész, A., Michel, M., & Gilabert, R. (2016). Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments: A validation study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 703-737. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263115000339
[79] Roehr-Brackin, K. (2018). Metalinguistic awareness and second language acquisition. Routledge.
[80] Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. MIT Press.
[81] Sak, M. (2024). Tracking motivational changes in self-initiated professional development in ELT: A single-case analysis. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 18(5), 480-490. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2315107
[82] Schwartz, J. L., Basirat, A., Ménard, L., & Sato, M. (2012). The perception-for-action-control theory (PACT): A perceptuo-motor theory of speech perception. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 25(5), 336-354. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2009.12.004
[83] Shi, L. (2025). The integration of advanced AI-enabled emotion detection and adaptive learning systems for improved emotional regulation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 63(1), 173-201. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331241296890
[84] Spinner, P., & Gass, S. M. (2019). Using judgments in second language acquisition research. Routledge.
[85] Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
[86] Szenkovits, G., Peelle, J. E., Norris, D., & Davis, M. H. (2012). Individual differences in premotor and motor recruitment during speech perception. Neuropsychologia, 50(7), 1380-1392. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.02.023
[87] Teng, M. F., Mizumoto, A., & Takeuchi, O. (2024). Understanding growth mindset, self-regulated vocabulary learning, and vocabulary knowledge. System, 122, 103255. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103255
[88] Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard University Press.
[89] Van Geert, P. (2008). The dynamic systems approach in the study of L1 and L2 acquisition: An introduction. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 179-199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00713.x
[90] Van Ginkel, S., Laurentzen, R., Mulder, M., Mononen, A., Kyttä, J., & Kortelainen, M. J. (2017). Assessing oral presentation performance: Designing a rubric and testing its validity with an expert group. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 9(3), 474-486. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-02-2016-0012
[91] Vandergrift, L., & Baker, S. (2015). Learner variables in second language listening comprehension: An exploratory path analysis. Language Learning, 65(2), 390-416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12105
[92] Varela, F. J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience. MIT Press.
[93] Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
[94] Waninge, F., Dörnyei, Z., & De Bot, K. (2014). Motivational dynamics in language learning: Change, stability, and context. The Modern Language Journal, 98(3), 704-723. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12118
[95] Wei, P., Wang, X., & Dong, H. (2023). The impact of automated writing evaluation on second language writing skills of Chinese EFL learners: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1249991. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1249991
[96] Wooldridge, M. (2002). An introduction to multiagent systems. Wiley.
[97] Woolf, S. H. (2008). The meaning of translational research and why it matters. JAMA, 299(2), 211-213. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2007.26
[98] Yabukoshi, T., & Mizumoto, A. (2024). Incorporating online writing resources into self-regulated learning strategy-based instruction: An intervention study. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(6), 3486-3504. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.13081
[99] Yuan, X., Li, L., Wang, Y., Yang, C., & Gui, W. (2020). Deep learning for quality prediction of nonlinear dynamic processes with variable attention-based long short-term memory network. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 98(6), 1377-1389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.23665
[100] Zhao, D. (2024). The impact of AI-enhanced natural language processing tools on writing proficiency: An analysis of language precision, content summarization, and creative writing facilitation. Education and Information Technologies, 1-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13145-5
[101] Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). Academic Press. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
[2] Antonenko, D., Diekelmann, S., Olsen, C., Born, J., & Mölle, M. (2013). Napping to renew learning capacity: Enhanced encoding after stimulation of sleep slow oscillations. European Journal of Neuroscience, 37(7), 1142-1151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ejn.12118
[3] Atkinson, D., Mejía‐Laguna, J., Ribeiro, A. C., Cappellini, M., Kayi‐Aydar, H., & Lowie, W. (2025). Relationality, interconnectedness, and identity: A process‐focused approach to second language acquisition and teaching (SLA/T). The Modern Language Journal, 109(S1), 39-63. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12982
[4] Banks, J. (2019). A perceived moral agency scale: Development and validation of a metric for humans and social machines. Computers in Human Behavior, 90, 363-371. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.028
[5] Bastiaansen, M. C., Van Der Linden, M., Ter Keurs, M., Dijkstra, T., & Hagoort, P. (2005). Theta responses are involved in lexical - semantic retrieval during language processing. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17(3), 530-541. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/0898929053279469
[6] Biber, D., Gray, B., & Staples, S. (2016). Grammatical complexity in academic English: Linguistic change in writing. Cambridge University Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316661278
[7] Bonabeau, E., Dorigo, M., & Theraulaz, G. (1999). Swarm intelligence: From natural to artificial systems. Oxford University Press.
[8] Bonte, M., & Brem, S. (2024). Unraveling individual differences in learning potential: A dynamic framework for the case of reading development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 101362. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101362
[9] Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development. Harvard University Press.
[10] Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141-178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls0202_2
[11] Brysbaert, M., Mandera, P., & Keuleers, E. (2018). The word frequency effect in word processing: An updated review. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(1), 45-50. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417727521
[12] Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56(2), 81-105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046016
[13] Carbajal-Carrera, B., & Prestigiacomo, R. (2025). Rhizomatic approaches: A response to hierarchies, linearity, and isolation in language learning. In The Routledge handbook of endangered and minority languages (pp. 392-406). Routledge.
[14] Chen, T., & Guestrin, C. (2016). XGBoost: A scalable tree boosting system. In Proceedings of the 22nd ACM SIGKDD international conference on knowledge discovery and data mining (pp. 785-794). ACM.
[15] Cheng, R. (2025). Examining the impact of online help-seeking strategies on promoting EFL learners' self-regulated and collaborative learning skills, language learning outcomes, and perceptions in CALL environments. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 63(1.) DOI: 10.1177/07356331241301226
[16] Choi, S., Jang, Y., & Kim, H. (2023). Influence of pedagogical beliefs and perceived trust on teachers' acceptance of educational artificial intelligence tools. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 39(4), 910-922. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2022.2049145
[17] Clark, A. (2013). Whatever next? Predictive brains, situated agents, and the future of cognitive science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 36(3), 181-204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X12000477
[18] Clark, A., & Chalmers, D. (1998). The extended mind. Analysis, 58(1), 7-19. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/58.1.7
[19] Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213-238. DOI:https://doi.org/10.2307/3587951
[20] Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.
[21] De Bot, K. (2008). Introduction: Second language development as a dynamic process. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 166-178. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00712.x
[22] De Bot, K., Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2007). A dynamic systems theory approach to second language acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 7-21. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728906002732
[23] Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. Plenum Press.
[24] DeKeyser, R. (2020). Skill acquisition theory. In B. VanPatten, G. D. Keating, & S. Wulff (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 83-104). Routledge.
[25] Denzin, N. K. (1978). The research act: A theoretical introduction to sociological methods. McGraw-Hill.
[26] Devlin, J., Chang, M.-W., Lee, K., & Toutanova, K. (2019). BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. In Proceedings of NAACL-HLT 2019 (pp. 4171-4186). DOI:https://doi.org/10.18653/v1/N19-1423
[27] Dörnyei, Z. (2014). Researching complex dynamic systems: 'Retrodictive qualitative modelling' in the language classroom. Language Teaching, 47(1), 80-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444811000516
[28] Duan, S., & Shi, Z. (2024). A longitudinal study of formulaic sequence use in second language writing: Complex dynamic systems perspective. Language Teaching Research, 28(2), 497-530. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688211002942
[29] Dunbar, N. E., Brooks, C. F., & Kubicka-Miller, T. (2006). Oral communication skills in higher education: Using a performance-based evaluation rubric to assess communication skills. Innovative Higher Education, 31, 115-128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-006-9012-x
[30] Ebadi, S., & Rahimi, M. (2018). An exploration into the impact of WebQuest-based classroom on EFL learners' critical thinking and academic writing skills: A mixed-methods study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(5-6), 617-651. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1449757
[31] Ellis, N. C. (2008). The dynamics of second language emergence: Cycles of language use, language change, and language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 232-249. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00716.x
[32] Fleckenstein, J., Liebenow, L. W., & Meyer, J. (2023). Automated feedback and writing: A multi-level meta-analysis of effects on students' performance. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence, 6, 1162454. DOI:https://doi.org/10.3389/frai.2023.1162454
[33] Friederici, A. D., & Gierhan, S. M. (2013). The language network. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 23(2), 250-254. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2012.10.002
[34] Garofolo, J. S., Lamel, L. F., Fisher, W. M., Fiscus, J. G., & Pallett, D. S. (1993). DARPA TIMIT acoustic-phonetic continuous speech corpus. Linguistic Data Consortium. https://catalog.ldc.upenn.edu/LDC93S1
[35] Gibson, J. J. (1977). The theory of affordances. In R. Shaw & J. Bransford (Eds.), Perceiving, acting, and knowing (pp. 67-82). Erlbaum.
[36] Glaser, B., & Strauss, A. (2017). Discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Routledge.
[37] Gleick, J. (2008). Chaos: Making a new science. Penguin.
[38] Goldberg, D. E. (1989). Genetic algorithms in search, optimization, and machine learning. Addison-Wesley.
[39] Granena, G., & Long, M. H. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research, 29(3), 311-343. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0267658312461497
[40] Hayes, J. R. (2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29(3), 369-388. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088312451260
[41] Henseler, J., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2015). A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 43(1), 115-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8
[42] Hesling, I., Labache, L., Joliot, M., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2019). Large-scale plurimodal networks are common to listening to, producing and reading word lists: An fMRI study combining task-induced activation and intrinsic connectivity in 144 right-handers. Brain Structure and Function, 224(9), 3075-3094. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-019-01951-4
[43] Hochreiter, S., & Schmidhuber, J. (1997). Long short-term memory. Neural Computation, 9(8), 1735-1780. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1997.9.8.1735
[44] Hohenberger, A., & Peltzer-Karpf, A. (2009). Language learning from the perspective of nonlinear dynamic systems. Linguistics, 47(2), 481-511. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/LING.2009.017
[45] Holland, J. H. (2002). Complex adaptive systems and spontaneous emergence. In A. Quadrio Curzio & M. Fortis (Eds.), Complexity and industrial clusters: Dynamics and models in theory and practice (pp. 25-34). Physica-Verlag HD. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-50007-7_3
[46] Hollnagel, E., & Woods, D. D. (2005). Joint cognitive systems: Foundations of cognitive systems engineering. CRC Press.
[47] Housen, A., Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2012). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency: Definitions, measurement, and research. In A. Housen, F. Kuiken, & I. Vedder (Eds.), Dimensions of L2 performance and proficiency (pp. 1-20). John Benjamins. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.32
[48] Hutchins, E. (1995). Cognition in the wild. MIT Press.
[49] Hyland, K. (2016). Teaching and researching writing (3rd ed.). Routledge. DOI:https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833725
[50] Jang, E. E., Hunte, M., Barron, C., & Hannah, L. (2023). Exploring the role of self-regulation in young learners' writing assessment and intervention using BalanceAI automated diagnostic feedback. In M. Poehner & O. Inbar-Lourie (Eds.), Fundamental considerations in technology mediated language assessment (pp. 31-48). Routledge.
[51] Jiang, J., Bi, P., & Liu, H. (2023). Collocation networks in L2 writing development. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 61(3), 1057-1085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2019-0147
[52] Jiang, L., & Alotaibi, F. S. (2022). Investigation of English grammar application ability of college students using dynamic nonlinear system theory. Fractals, 30(02). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218348X22400825
[53] Jiang, X., & Yu, Z. (2025). Exploring the impact of learner- and peer-help seeking strategies on cognitive load reduction and self-regulated learning skills enhancement. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-20. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2025.2457352
[54] Koo, T. K., & Li, M. Y. (2016). A guideline of selecting and reporting intraclass correlation coefficients for reliability research. Journal of Chiropractic Medicine, 15(2), 155-163. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcm.2016.02.012
[55] Kumari, A., Kakkar, R., Tanwar, S., Garg, D., Polkowski, Z., Alqahtani, F., & Tolba, A. (2024). Multi-agent-based decentralized residential energy management using deep reinforcement learning. Journal of Building Engineering, 87, 109031. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.109031
[56] Larsen-Freeman, D. (1997). Chaos/complexity science and second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 18(2), 141-165. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/18.2.141
[57] Larsen-Freeman, D. (2007). On the complementarity of chaos/complexity theory and dynamic systems theory in understanding the second language acquisition process. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(1), 35-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672890600277X
[58] Larsen-Freeman, D. (2019). On language learner agency: A complex dynamic systems theory perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 103, 61-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12536
[59] Larsen-Freeman, D. (2020). Complex dynamic systems theory. In B. VanPatten, G. D. Keating, & S. Wulff (Eds.), Theories in second language acquisition (pp. 248-270). Routledge.
[60] Linacre, J. M. (2020). A user's guide to FACETS: Rasch-model computer programs. Winsteps.
[61] Liu, Y. (2024a). The impact of bi/multilingualism on brain activity in dual language education based on smart technologies: Neurolinguistic aspect. Education and Information Technologies, 29(14), 18299-18321. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12571-9
[62] Liu, Z. (2024b). Effects of nonlinear dynamic online assessment model on language learners' learning outcomes and cognitive load. Education and Information Technologies, 1-30. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12816-7
[63] Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2015). Variability and variation in second language acquisition orders: A dynamic reevaluation. Language Learning, 65(1), 63-88. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12093
[64] Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge University Press.
[65] McAuliffe, M., Socolof, M., Mihuc, S., Wagner, M., & Sonderegger, M. (2017). Montreal forced aligner: Trainable text-speech alignment using Kaldi. In Proceedings of Interspeech 2017 (pp. 498-502). DOI:https://doi.org/10.21437/Interspeech.2017-1386
[66] Messick, S. (1995). Validity of psychological assessment. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741-749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741
[67] Michel, M., Atkinson, D., Ribeiro, A. C., Alexopoulou, T., Cappellini, M., Eskildsen, S. W., & Zheng, Y. (2025). Forging common ground in second language acquisition and teaching: A combined synergy statement. The Modern Language Journal, 109(S1), 90-103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12983
[68] Muthén, B., & Asparouhov, T. (2012). Bayesian structural equation modeling: A more flexible representation of substantive theory. Psychological Methods, 17(3), 313-335. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026802
[69] Nassaji, H., & Fotos, S. (2020). The role of explicit metalinguistic knowledge in instructed SLA: A cognitive load theory perspective. Modern Language Journal, 104(3), 530-548. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12656
[70] Nation, I. S. P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 59-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.63.1.59
[71] Newell, A. (1990). Unified theories of cognition. Harvard University Press.
[72] Nicholls, D. (2003). The Cambridge learner corpus: Error coding and analysis for lexicography and ELT. In Proceedings of the corpus linguistics 2003 conference (pp. 572-581). Lancaster University.
[73] Nyatsanga, S., Kucherenko, T., Ahuja, C., Henter, G. E., & Neff, M. (2023). A comprehensive review of data-driven co-speech gesture generation. Computer Graphics Forum, 42(2), 569-596. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.14776
[74] Pascual-Leone, A., Amedi, A., Fregni, F., & Merabet, L. B. (2005). The plastic human brain cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28(1), 377-401. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144216
[75] Perfetti, C. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357-383. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701530730
[76] Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and predictive validity of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 53(3), 801-813. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053003024
[77] Ranjbar, M., Hassanzadeh, M., & Roghanian, A. (2025). Unveiling the complexity of L2 learners' emotions and emotion regulation: A retrodictive qualitative modeling study. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 35(1), 134-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12606
[78] Révész, A., Michel, M., & Gilabert, R. (2016). Measuring cognitive task demands using dual-task methodology, subjective self-ratings, and expert judgments: A validation study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 703-737. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263115000339
[79] Roehr-Brackin, K. (2018). Metalinguistic awareness and second language acquisition. Routledge.
[80] Rumelhart, D. E., & McClelland, J. L. (1986). Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition. MIT Press.
[81] Sak, M. (2024). Tracking motivational changes in self-initiated professional development in ELT: A single-case analysis. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 18(5), 480-490. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2024.2315107
[82] Schwartz, J. L., Basirat, A., Ménard, L., & Sato, M. (2012). The perception-for-action-control theory (PACT): A perceptuo-motor theory of speech perception. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 25(5), 336-354. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2009.12.004
[83] Shi, L. (2025). The integration of advanced AI-enabled emotion detection and adaptive learning systems for improved emotional regulation. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 63(1), 173-201. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331241296890
[84] Spinner, P., & Gass, S. M. (2019). Using judgments in second language acquisition research. Routledge.
[85] Sutton, R. S., & Barto, A. G. (2018). Reinforcement learning: An introduction (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
[86] Szenkovits, G., Peelle, J. E., Norris, D., & Davis, M. H. (2012). Individual differences in premotor and motor recruitment during speech perception. Neuropsychologia, 50(7), 1380-1392. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2012.02.023
[87] Teng, M. F., Mizumoto, A., & Takeuchi, O. (2024). Understanding growth mindset, self-regulated vocabulary learning, and vocabulary knowledge. System, 122, 103255. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103255
[88] Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard University Press.
[89] Van Geert, P. (2008). The dynamic systems approach in the study of L1 and L2 acquisition: An introduction. The Modern Language Journal, 92(2), 179-199. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2008.00713.x
[90] Van Ginkel, S., Laurentzen, R., Mulder, M., Mononen, A., Kyttä, J., & Kortelainen, M. J. (2017). Assessing oral presentation performance: Designing a rubric and testing its validity with an expert group. Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education, 9(3), 474-486. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1108/JARHE-02-2016-0012
[91] Vandergrift, L., & Baker, S. (2015). Learner variables in second language listening comprehension: An exploratory path analysis. Language Learning, 65(2), 390-416. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12105
[92] Varela, F. J., Thompson, E., & Rosch, E. (1991). The embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience. MIT Press.
[93] Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
[94] Waninge, F., Dörnyei, Z., & De Bot, K. (2014). Motivational dynamics in language learning: Change, stability, and context. The Modern Language Journal, 98(3), 704-723. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12118
[95] Wei, P., Wang, X., & Dong, H. (2023). The impact of automated writing evaluation on second language writing skills of Chinese EFL learners: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1249991. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1249991
[96] Wooldridge, M. (2002). An introduction to multiagent systems. Wiley.
[97] Woolf, S. H. (2008). The meaning of translational research and why it matters. JAMA, 299(2), 211-213. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2007.26
[98] Yabukoshi, T., & Mizumoto, A. (2024). Incorporating online writing resources into self-regulated learning strategy-based instruction: An intervention study. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 40(6), 3486-3504. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.13081
[99] Yuan, X., Li, L., Wang, Y., Yang, C., & Gui, W. (2020). Deep learning for quality prediction of nonlinear dynamic processes with variable attention-based long short-term memory network. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering, 98(6), 1377-1389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/cjce.23665
[100] Zhao, D. (2024). The impact of AI-enhanced natural language processing tools on writing proficiency: An analysis of language precision, content summarization, and creative writing facilitation. Education and Information Technologies, 1-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13145-5
[101] Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social cognitive perspective. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation (pp. 13-39). Academic Press. DOI:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-012109890-2/50031-7
Published
2025-12-30
How to Cite
BAHARI, Akbar.
Nonlinear Dynamic Language Learning Theory in AI-Mediated EFL: From Theory to Practice.
Journal of Research in Educational Sciences, [S.l.], v. 16, n. 2, p. 89 - 127, dec. 2025.
ISSN 2068-8407.
Available at: <https://journals.aserspublishing.eu/jres/article/view/9235>. Date accessed: 17 dec. 2025.
doi: https://doi.org/10.14505/jres.v16.2(20).05.
Section
Articles
The Copyright Transfer Form to ASERS Publishing (The Publisher)
This form refers to the manuscript, which an author(s) was accepted for publication and was signed by all the authors.
The undersigned Author(s) of the above-mentioned Paper here transfer any and all copyright-rights in and to The Paper to The Publisher. The Author(s) warrants that The Paper is based on their original work and that the undersigned has the power and authority to make and execute this assignment. It is the author's responsibility to obtain written permission to quote material that has been previously published in any form. The Publisher recognizes the retained rights noted below and grants to the above authors and employers for whom the work performed royalty-free permission to reuse their materials below. Authors may reuse all or portions of the above Paper in other works, excepting the publication of the paper in the same form. Authors may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce the above Paper for the Author's personal use or for internal company use, provided that the source and The Publisher copyright notice are mentioned, that the copies are not used in any way that implies The Publisher endorsement of a product or service of an employer, and that the copies are not offered for sale as such. Authors are permitted to grant third party requests for reprinting, republishing or other types of reuse. The Authors may make limited distribution of all or portions of the above Paper prior to publication if they inform The Publisher of the nature and extent of such limited distribution prior there to. Authors retain all proprietary rights in any process, procedure, or article of manufacture described in The Paper. This agreement becomes null and void if and only if the above paper is not accepted and published by The Publisher, or is with drawn by the author(s) before acceptance by the Publisher.